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 Control Systems

About the Tutorial

This tutorial is meant to provide the readers the knowhow of how to analyze the control
systems with the help of mathematical models. After completing this tutorial, you will be
able to learn various methods and techniques in order to improve the performance of the
control systems based on the requirements.

Audience
This tutorial is meant for all those readers who are aspiring to learn the fundamental
concepts of Control Systems.

Prerequisites
A learner who wants to go ahead with this tutorial needs to have a basic understanding of
Signals and Systems.

Copyright & Disclaimer

 Copyright 2016 by Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd.

All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials Point (I)
Pvt. Ltd. The user of this e-book is prohibited to reuse, retain, copy, distribute or republish
any contents or a part of contents of this e-book in any manner without written consent
of the publisher.

We strive to update the contents of our website and tutorials as timely and as precisely as
possible, however, the contents may contain inaccuracies or errors. Tutorials Point (I) Pvt.
Ltd. provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of our
website or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover any errors on our website or
in this tutorial, please notify us at [email protected].

i
 Control Systems

Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................ i
Audience ........................................................................................................................................................... i
Prerequisites ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Copyright & Disclaimer ..................................................................................................................................... i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ ii

1. Control Systems − Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1

Classification of Control Systems ..................................................................................................................... 1

2. Control Systems − Feedback ..................................................................................................................... 4

Types of Feedback ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Effects of Feedback ......................................................................................................................................... 5

3. Control Systems − Mathematical Models .................................................................................................. 8

Differential Equation Model ............................................................................................................................ 8
Transfer Function Model ................................................................................................................................. 9

4. Modeling of Mechanical Systems ............................................................................................................ 11

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems ............................................................................................ 11
Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems ................................................................................................ 13

5. Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems ............................................................................................ 16

Force Voltage Analogy ................................................................................................................................... 16
Force Current Analogy ................................................................................................................................... 18

6. Control Systems − Block Diagrams .......................................................................................................... 20

Basic Elements of Block Diagram................................................................................................................... 20
Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems .................................................................................... 22

7. Control Systems − Block Diagram Algebra ............................................................................................... 25

Basic Connections for Blocks ......................................................................................................................... 25
Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points .................................................................................................. 27
Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points .................................................................................................... 29

8. Block Diagram Reduction ........................................................................................................................ 32

Block Diagram Reduction Rules ..................................................................................................................... 32

9. Control Systems − Signal Flow Graphs..................................................................................................... 36

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph ............................................................................................................. 36
Construction of Signal Flow Graph ................................................................................................................ 37
Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs ................................................................................ 38

10. Mason’s Gain Formula ............................................................................................................................ 41

Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula ..................................................................... 42

11. Control Systems − Time Response Analysis ............................................................................................. 44

What is Time Response?................................................................................................................................ 44
Standard Test Signals..................................................................................................................................... 45

ii
 Control Systems

12. Response of the First Order System ........................................................................................................ 48

Impulse Response of First Order System ....................................................................................................... 49
Step Response of First Order System ............................................................................................................ 50
Ramp Response of First Order System .......................................................................................................... 51
Parabolic Response of First Order System..................................................................................................... 52

13. Response of Second Order System .......................................................................................................... 54

Step Response of Second Order System ....................................................................................................... 55
Impulse Response of Second Order System .................................................................................................. 58

14. Control Systems − Time Domain Specifications ....................................................................................... 60

Delay Time ..................................................................................................................................................... 60
Rise Time ....................................................................................................................................................... 61
Peak Time ...................................................................................................................................................... 61
Peak Overshoot ............................................................................................................................................. 62
Settling time .................................................................................................................................................. 63

15. Control Systems − Steady State Errors .................................................................................................... 65

Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems........................................................................................... 65
Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback Systems ................................................................................... 67

16. Control Systems − Stability ..................................................................................................................... 69

What is Stability? ........................................................................................................................................... 69
Types of Systems based on Stability .............................................................................................................. 69

17. Control Systems − Stability Analysis ........................................................................................................ 71

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion .................................................................................................................. 71
Routh Array Method...................................................................................................................................... 71
Special Cases of Routh Array ......................................................................................................................... 73

18. Control Systems − Root Locus ................................................................................................................. 76

Basics of Root Locus ...................................................................................................................................... 76

19. Construction of Root Locus ..................................................................................................................... 78

Rules for Construction of Root Locus ............................................................................................................ 78

20. Frequency Response Analysis ................................................................................................................. 82

What is Frequency Response? ....................................................................................................................... 82
Frequency Domain Specifications ................................................................................................................. 83

21. Control Systems − Bode Plots .................................................................................................................. 86

Basics of Bode Plots ....................................................................................................................................... 86

22. Construction of Bode Plots...................................................................................................................... 90

Rules for Construction of Bode Plots ............................................................................................................. 90
Stability Analysis using Bode Plots ................................................................................................................ 90

23. Control Systems − Polar Plots.................................................................................................................. 92

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots ........................................................................................................................ 93

iii
 Control Systems

24. Control Systems − Nyquist Plots.............................................................................................................. 95

Nyquist Stability Criterion.............................................................................................................................. 95
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots .................................................................................................................... 96
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots ............................................................................................................ 96

25. Control Systems − Compensators ............................................................................................................ 98

Lag Compensator ........................................................................................................................................... 98
Lead Compensator......................................................................................................................................... 99
Lag-Lead Compensator ................................................................................................................................ 100

26. Control Systems − Controllers ............................................................................................................... 101

Proportional Controller ............................................................................................................................... 101
Derivative Controller ................................................................................................................................... 102
Integral Controller ....................................................................................................................................... 102
Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller ...................................................................................................... 103
Proportional Integral (PI) Controller ............................................................................................................ 104
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller ........................................................................................ 104

27. Control Systems − State Space Model ................................................................................................... 106

Basic Concepts of State Space Model .......................................................................................................... 106
State Space Model from Differential Equation............................................................................................ 107
State Space Model from Transfer Function ................................................................................................. 108

28. Control Systems − State Space Analysis ................................................................................................ 112

Transfer Function from State Space Model ................................................................................................. 112
State Transition Matrix and its Properties ................................................................................................... 113
Controllability and Observability ................................................................................................................. 114

iv
 1. Control Systems − Introduction Control Systems

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the
output. The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled
by varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input with some
mechanism. In the next section on open loop and closed loop control systems, we will
study in detail about the blocks inside the control system and how to vary this input in
order to get the desired response.

Examples: Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input
signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will
be on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based
on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be
determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control
system operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete
time control systems based on the type of the signal used.

 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But,
in discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control
systems based on the number of inputs and outputs present.

 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one
output. Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems
have more than one input and more than one output.

1
 Control Systems

Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control
systems based on the feedback path.

In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action
is independent of the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling

signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So,
the plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which
we discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action
is dependent on the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control
system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and
the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements)
by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the
direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the
desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic
control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of
a closed loop control system.

2
 Control Systems

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned
in the following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the Control action is dependent on the desired

desired output. output.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback These are also called as feedback
control systems. control systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

3
 2. Control Systems − Feedback Control Systems

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as
part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role
in order to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss
the types of feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback:

 Positive feedback

 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, 𝑅(𝑠) and feedback output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being,
consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,
𝑮
𝑻= (Equation1)
𝟏−𝑮𝑯

Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, 𝑅(𝑠) and system output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control
system.

4
 Control Systems

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

𝑮
𝑻= (Equation 2)
𝟏+𝑮𝑯

Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency

The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system is the ratio of ‘G’ and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case,
‘GH’ value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case, ‘GH’ value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, ‘G’ and ‘H’ are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the
overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency
range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as
𝛛𝐓⁄ 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐓
𝐒𝐆𝐓 = 𝛛𝐆 𝐓 = (Equation 3)
⁄𝐆 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐆

Where, 𝞉T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

5
 Control Systems

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

𝝏𝑻 𝑮
𝑺𝑻𝑮 = (Equation 4)
𝝏𝑮 𝑻

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

∂T ∂ G (1+GH).1−𝐺(𝐻) 1
∂G
= (
∂G 1+GH
)=
(1+GH)2
=
(1+GH)2
(Equation 5)

From Equation 2, you will get

𝐺
𝑇
= 1 + 𝐺𝐻 (Equation 6)
Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.
1 1
𝑆𝐺𝑇 = 2
(1 + 𝐺𝐻) =
(1 + GH) 1 + 𝐺𝐻

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocal of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of
(1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, ‘GH’
value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
‘GH’ value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, ‘G’ and ‘H’ are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity
of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
Therefore, we have to choose the values of ‘GH’ in such a way that the system is insensitive
or less sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to
be unstable.

 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of
the control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system
stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations
with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.

Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

6
 Control Systems

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝐶(𝑠)
= 𝐺𝑏 (Equation 7)
𝑁(𝑠)

It is obtained by making the other input 𝑅(𝑠) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺
= 1+𝐺 𝑏𝐺 (Equation 8)
𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎 𝑏𝐻

It is obtained by making the other input 𝑅(𝑠) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,

In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor of
(1 + 𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑏 𝐻) provided that the term (1 + 𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑏 𝐻) is greater than one.

7
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S NEW

MONTHLY MAGAZINE, NO. XXIV, MAY 1852, VOL. IV ***
 HARPER'S
NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.

No. XXIV.—MAY, 1852.—Vol. IV.

 RODOLPHUS.—A FRANCONIA
STORY.
BY JACOB ABBOTT.

CHAPTER III.
I. ANTONIO.

The person who came in so suddenly to help the boys extinguish the
fire under the corn-barn, on the night of the robbery, was Antonio,
or Beechnut, as the boys more commonly called him. In order to
explain how he came to be there, we must go back a little in our
narrative, and change the scene of it to Mrs. Henry's house at
Franconia, where Antonio lived.
One morning about a week before the robbery, Phonny, Mrs. Henry's
son, and his cousin Malleville, who was at that time making a visit at
his mother's, were out upon the back platform at play, when they
saw Antonio walking toward the barn.
"Children," said Antonio, "we are going into the field to get a great
stone out of the ground. You may go with us if you like."
"Well;" said Phonny, "come, Malleville, let us go."
So the children followed Antonio to the barn. There was a man
there, one of Mrs. Henry's workmen, called James, who was getting
out the oxen. James drove the oxen into the shed, and there
attached them to a certain vehicle called a drag. This drag was
formed of two planks placed side by side, with small pieces nailed
along the sides and at the ends. The drag was shaped at the front
so as to turn up a little, in order that it might not catch in the ground
when drawn along. There was a hole in the front part of the drag for
the end of a chain to be passed through, to draw the drag by. The
end of the chain was fastened by a wooden pin called a fid, which
was passed through the hook or one of the links, and this prevented
the chain from being drawn back through the hole again.
While James was attaching the oxen to the drag, Antonio was
putting such tools and implements upon it as would be required for
the work. He put on an iron bar, an ax, a saw, a shovel, and two
spare chains.
"Now, children," said he, "jump on."
So Phonny and Malleville jumped on, and Antonio with them.
Antonio stood in the middle of the drag, while Phonny and Malleville
took their places on each side of him, and held on by his arms.
James then started the oxen along, and thus they went into the
field.
"And now, Beechnut," said Malleville, "I wish you would sing me the
little song that Agnes sung when she was dancing on the ice that
summer night."
Phonny laughed aloud at this. "Oh, Malleville!" said he; "there could
not be any ice on a summer night."
"Yes, there could," said Malleville, in a very positive tone, "and there
was. Beechnut told me so."
"Oh, that was only one of Beechnut's stories," said Phonny, "made
up to amuse you."
"Well, I don't care," said Malleville, "I want to hear the song again."
Beechnut had told Malleville a story about the fairy Agnes whom he
found dancing upon a fountain one summer night in the woods,
having previously frozen over the surface of the water with a little
silver wand. He had often sung this song to Malleville, and now she
wished to hear it again. The words of the song, as Beechnut sang
them, were as follows:

Peep! peep! chippeda dee.

Playing in the moonlight, nobody to see.
The boys and girls have gone away,
They've had their playtime in the day
And now the night is left for me:
Peep! peep! chippeda dee.

The music was as follows:

[Listen]
When Beechnut had sung the song Malleville said, "Again." She was
accustomed to say "again," when she wished to hear Beechnut go
on with his singing, and as she usually liked to hear such songs a
great many times. Beechnut always continued to sing them, over
and over, as long as she said "again."
Thus Malleville kept him singing Agnes's song in this instance all the
way toward the field.
At length Malleville ceased to say "again," on account of her
attention being attracted to a bridge which she saw before them,
and which it was obvious they were going to cross. It had only logs
on the sides of it for railing. Beyond the bridge the road lay along
the margin of a wood. The stone which James and Antonio were
going to get out, was just beyond the bridge, and almost in the
road. When the oxen got opposite to the stone, James stopped
them, and Antonio and the children got off the drag.
 THE DRAG RIDE.
It was only a small part of the stone that appeared above the
ground. James took the shovel and began to dig around the place,
so as to bring the stone more fully to view, while Antonio went into
the wood to cut a small tree, in order to make a lever of the stem of
it. Phonny took the saw—first asking Antonio's permission to take it
—and climbed up into a large tree near the margin of the wood,
where he began to saw off a dead branch which was growing there,
and which may be seen in the picture. Malleville, in the mean time,
sat down upon a square stone which was lying by the road-side near
the wood, and occupied herself sometimes in watching the operation
of digging out the stone, sometimes in looking up at Phonny, and
sometimes in singing the song which Antonio had sung to her on the
way.
Presently Antonio, having obtained his lever, came out into the road
with it, and laid it down by the drag. He looked at the drag in doing
this, and observed that one of the side-pieces had started up, and
that it ought to be nailed down again. He looked up into the tree
where Phonny was sawing, and said:
"Phonny!"
"What!" said Phonny.
"Look up over your head," said Antonio. Phonny looked up.
"Do you see that short branch just above you?"
"This?" said Phonny, putting his hand upon it.
"Yes," said Antonio.
"Yes," said Phonny, "I see it."
"Hang your saw on it," said Antonio.
Phonny did so.
"Now, come down from the tree," said Antonio.
Phonny climbed down as fast as he could, and came to Beechnut.
"Take all the things out of your pocket and put them down on the
drag."
Phonny began to take the things out. First came a pocket
handkerchief. Then a knife handle without any blades. Then a fishing
line. Then two old coins and a dark red pebble stone. This exhausted
one pocket.—From the other came a small glass prism, three acorns,
and at last two long nails.
"Ah, that is what I want," said Antonio, taking up the nails. "I
thought you had two nails in your pocket, for I remembered that I
gave you two yesterday. Will you give them back to me again?"
"Yes," said Phonny.
"Now, put the things back in your pocket. I admire a boy that obeys
orders, without stopping to ask why. He waits till the end, and then
he sees why. Now, you can go back to your saw."
But instead of going back to his saw, Phonny seemed just at that
instant to get a glimpse of something which attracted his attention
along the road beyond the bridge, for as soon as he had put his
goods and chattels back in his pockets, he paused a moment,
looking in that direction, and then he set out to run as fast as he
could over the bridge. Antonio looked, and saw that there was a girl
coming along, and that Phonny was running to meet her.
Antonio wondered who it could be.
It proved to be Ellen Linn. When Malleville saw that it was Ellen, she
ran to meet her. She asked her why she did not bring Annie with her.
"I did," said Ellen; "she is at the house. She was tired after walking
so far, and so I left her there."
"I am glad that she has come," said Malleville, "let us go and see
her."
"Not just yet," said Ellen. "I will go with you pretty soon."
The fact was that Ellen had come to see Antonio about Rodolphus,
and now she did not know exactly how she should manage to have
any conversation with him alone; and she did not wish to talk before
James and all the rest about the misconduct of her brother. As soon
as Antonio saw her, he went to meet her, and walked with her up to
the place where they were at work, to show her the great stone that
they were digging out. Ellen looked at it a few minutes and asked
some questions about it, but her thoughts were after all upon her
brother, and not upon the stone. Presently she went to the place
where Malleville had been sitting, and sat down there. She thought,
perhaps, that Antonio would come there, and that then she could
speak to him.
Phonny climbed up into the tree again, partly to finish his sawing,
and partly to let Ellen Linn see how well he could work in such a
high place. While he was there, Antonio went to the place where
Ellen Linn was sitting, and asked her if she had heard from
Rodolphus lately.
"Yes," said Ellen, "and that is the very thing that I came to see you
about. I want to talk with you about Rodolphus."
Ellen said this in a low and desponding voice, and Antonio knew that
she wished to speak to him alone.
"We can not talk very well here," said Antonio, "will it do if I come
and see you about it to-night?"
"Yes," said Ellen, looking up joyfully. "Only I am sorry to put you to
that trouble."
"I will come," said Antonio. "I shall get there about half-past eight."
Pretty soon after this, Ellen Linn went back to the house, and after a
time she and Annie went home. About a quarter past eight that
evening, she went out into the yard and down to the gate to watch
for Antonio. At length she saw him coming. When he reached the
house, Ellen walked with him to the great tree in the middle of the
yard, and they both sat down on the bench by the side of it, while
Annie was running about in the great circular walk, drawing her cart.
Here Antonio and Ellen had a long conversation about Rodolphus.
Ellen said that she had heard very unfavorable accounts of him. She
had learned that he had got into bad company in the town where he
now lived, as he had done at home, and that she was afraid that he
was fast going to ruin. She did not know what could be done, but
she thought that perhaps Antonio might go there and see him, and
find out how the case really was, and perhaps do something to save
her brother.
"I will go, at any rate," said Antonio, "and see if any thing can be
done. Perhaps," he continued, "Mr. Kerber has found that he is a
troublesome boy and may be willing to give him up, and then we
can get him another place. However, at all events, I will go and see."
"When can you go?" asked Ellen.
"I can go next Saturday, most conveniently," said Antonio. "Besides if
I go on Saturday I can stay till Monday, and that will give me all of
Sunday to see Rodolphus, when he will of course be at leisure."
So it was arranged that Antonio was to go on Saturday. Ellen
requested him to manage his expedition as privately as possible, for
she did not wish to have her brother's misconduct made known
more than was absolutely necessary. Antonio told her that nobody
but Mrs. Henry should know where he was going, and that he would
not even tell her what he was going for.
That evening Antonio obtained leave of Mrs. Henry to go to the town
where Mr. Kerber lived, on Saturday, and to be gone until Monday.
He told Mrs. Henry that the business on which he was going, was
private, and that it concerned other persons, and that on their
account, if she had confidence enough in him to trust him, he should
like to be allowed to go without explaining what the business was.
Mrs. Henry said that she had perfect confidence in him, and that she
did not wish him to explain the nature of the business. She
surmised, however, that it was something relating to Rodolphus, for
she knew about his character and history, and she recollected Ellen's
calling at her house to inquire for Antonio that morning.
When the Saturday arrived, Antonio began about ten o'clock to
prepare for his journey. He had decided to set out on foot. He
thought that he should get along very comfortably and well without
a horse, as he supposed it would be easy for him to make bargains
with the teamsters and travelers that would overtake him on the
road, to carry him a considerable part of the way. He could have
taken a horse as well as not from Mr. Henry's, but as he was to
remain in the place where he was going over Sunday, he concluded
that the expense of keeping the horse there, if he were to take one,
would be more than he would have to pay to the travelers and
teamsters for carrying him along the road.
He told James that he was going away, and that he was not to be
back again until Monday. He did not, however, tell him where he was
going. When he was all ready to set out, he went to his chest and
took some money out of his till—as much as he thought that he
should need—and then went into the parlor to tell Mrs. Henry that
he was going.
"Are you all ready, and have you got every thing that you want?"
asked Mrs. Henry.
Antonio said that he had every thing.
"Well, good-by then," said Mrs. Henry. "I wish you a pleasant
journey; and if you find that any thing occurs so that you think it
best to stay longer than Monday, you can do so."
Antonio thanked Mrs. Henry, bade her good-by, and went away.
Antonio stopped at Mrs. Linn's as he passed through the village. He
had promised Ellen that he would call there on his way, to get a
letter which she was going to send, and had told her at what time
he should probably come. He found Ellen waiting for him at the
gate. She had a small parcel in her hand. When Antonio came to the
gate she showed him the parcel, and asked him if he could carry
such a large one.
"It is not large at all," said Antonio; "I can carry it just as well as
not."
"It is my little Bible," said she, "and the letter is inside. It is the Bible
that my aunt gave me; but I thought she would be willing that I
should give it to Rodolphus, if she knew—"
Here Ellen stopped, without finishing her sentence, and walked away
toward the house. Antonio looked after her a moment, and then
went away without saying another word.
It was twelve o'clock before he was fairly set out on his journey. He
walked on for about two hours, meeting with various objects of
interest in the way, but without finding any traveler going the same
way, to help him on his journey. At last he came to a place where
there were two girls standing by a well before a farm-house.
Antonio, being tired and thirsty, went up to the well to get a drink.
 THE WELL.
"How far is it from here to Franconia?" said Antonio to the girls.
They looked at him as if surprised, but at first they did not answer.
"Do you know?" said Antonio, speaking again.
"Haven't you just come from Franconia?" said one of the girls.
"Yes," said Antonio.
"Then I should think that you would know yourself," said she.
"No," said Antonio, "I don't know. I have been walking about two
hours; but I don't know how far it is."
"I believe it is about five miles," said the youngest girl.
"Then I have come two miles and a half an hour," said Antonio. "It is
twenty miles more that I have got to go."
Then he made a calculation in his mind, and found that if he should
have to walk all the way, he should not reach the end of his journey
till about eleven o'clock, allowing one hour to stop for supper and
rest.
Antonio thanked the girls for his drink of water and then went on.
Pretty soon he saw a large wagon in the road before him. He walked
on fast until he overtook it. He made a bargain with the wagoner to
carry him as far as the wagon was going on his road, which was
about ten miles. This ride rested him very much, but it did not help
him forward at all in respect to time, for the wagon did not travel
any faster than he would have walked.
At length the wagon came to the place where it was to turn off from
Antonio's road; so Antonio paid the man the price which had been
agreed upon, and then took to the road again as a pedestrian.
He walked on about an hour, and then he began to be pretty tired.
He concluded that he would stop and rest and get some supper at
the very next tavern. It was now about half-past seven, and he was
yet, as he calculated, nearly eight miles from the end of his journey.
Just then he heard the sound of wheels behind him, and, on looking
round, he saw a light wagon coming, drawn by a single horse, and
with but one man in the wagon. The wagon was coming on pretty
rapidly, but Antonio determined to stop it as it passed; so he stood
at one side of the road, and held up his hand as a signal, when the
wagon came near.
The man stopped. On inquiry Antonio found that he was going
directly to the town where Rodolphus lived. Antonio asked the man
what he would ask to carry him there.
"What may I call your name?" said the man.
"My name is Antonio."
"And my name is Antony," said the man. "Antony. It is a remarkable
coincidence that our names should be so near alike. Get in here with
me and ride on to the tavern, we will see if we can make a trade."
Antonio found Antony a very amusing and agreeable companion. In
the end it was agreed that they should stop at the tavern and have
some supper, and that Antonio should pay for the supper for both
himself and Antony, and in consideration of that, he was to be
carried in the wagon to the end of his journey.
During the supper and afterward, while riding along the road,
Antony was quite inquisitive to learn all about Antonio, and
especially to ascertain what was the cause of his taking that journey.
But Antonio resisted all these attempts, and would give no
information whatever in respect to his business.
They reached the end of their journey about half-past nine o'clock.
Antonio was set down at the tavern, which has already been spoken
of as situated at the head of the lane leading to the corn-barn,
where Rodolphus and the other boys had made their rendezvous.
Immediately after being shown to his room, which it happened was
a chamber on the side of the house which was toward the lane,
Antonio came down stairs and went out. His plan was to proceed
directly to Mr. Kerber's house, hoping to be able to see Rodolphus
that evening. He was afraid before he left the tavern that it might be
too late, and that he should find they had all gone to bed at Mr.
Kerber's. He thought, however, that he could tell whether the family
were still up, by the light which he would in that case see at the
windows; and he concluded that if the house should appear dark, he
would not knock at the door, but go back to the tavern, and wait till
the next morning.
The house was dark, and so Antonio, after standing and looking at it
a few moments with a disappointed air, went back to the tavern. He
went in at the door, and went up to his room. It happened that no
one saw him go into the tavern this time, for as there was a very
bright moon, and it shone directly into his chamber-window, he
thought that he should not need a lamp to go to bed by, so he went
directly up stairs to his room.
It was now about ten o'clock. Antonio sat down by his window and
looked out. It was a beautiful evening, and he sat some time
enjoying the scene. At length he heard suppressed voices, and
looking down he saw three boys come stealing along round the
corner of a fence and enter a lane. He saw the light of a lantern,
too, for he was up so high that he could look down into it, as it
were. He was convinced at once from these indications that there
was something going on that was wrong.
He listened attentively, and thought that he could recognize
Rodolphus's voice, and he was at once filled with apprehension and
anxiety. He immediately took his cap, and went softly down stairs,
and out at the door, and then going round into the lane, he followed
the boys down toward the corn-barn. When they had all got safely
in, underneath the building, he crept up softly to the place, and
looking through a small crack in the boards he saw and heard all
that was going on; he overheard the conversation between the boys
about the box, saw them take away the straw, dig the hole, and
bury it, and then had just time to step round the corner of the barn,
and conceal himself, when the boys came out to see if the way was
clear for them to go home. The next moment the light from the
burning straw broke out, and Antonio, without stopping to think, ran
instinctively in among the boys to help them to put out the fire.
Of course when the boys fled he was left there alone, and he soon
found that it would be impossible for him to extinguish the fire. It
spread so rapidly over the straw and among the boxes, that it was
very plain all his efforts to arrest the progress of it would be
unavailing. In the mean time he began to hear the cry of "fire." The
people of the tavern had been the first to see the light, and were
running to the spot down the lane. It suddenly occurred to Antonio
that if he were found there at the fire he should be obliged to
explain how he came there, and by so doing to expose Rodolphus as
a thief and a burglar.[1] When Antonio thought how broken-hearted
Ellen would be to have her brother sent to prison for such crimes, he
could not endure the thought of being the means of his detection.
He immediately determined therefore to run away, and leave the
people to find out how the fire originated as they best could.
All these thoughts passed through Antonio's mind in an instant, and
he sprang out from under the corn-barn as soon as he heard the
men coming, and ran off toward the fields. The men saw him, and
they concluded immediately that he was an incendiary who had set
the building on fire, and accordingly the first two that came to the
spot instead of stopping to put out the fire, determined to pursue
the fugitive. Antonio ran to a place where there was a gap in a wall,
and, leaping over, he crouched down, and ran along on the outer
side of the wall. The men followed him. Antonio made for a haystack
which was near, and after going round to the further side of the
haystack, he ran on toward a wood, keeping the haystack between
himself and the men, in hopes that he should thus be concealed
from their view. As soon as he got into the wood he ran into a little
thicket, and creeping into the darkest place that he could find, he lay
down there to await the result.
The men came up to the place out of breath with running. They
looked about in the wood for some time, and Antonio began to think
that they would not find him. But he was mistaken. One of the men
at length found him, and pulled him out roughly by the arms.
They took hold of him, one on one side and the other on the other,
and led him back toward the fire. The building was by this time all in
flames, and though many men had assembled they made no effort
to extinguish the fire. It was obvious, in fact, that all such efforts
would have been unavailing. Then, besides, as the building stood by
itself, there was no danger to any other property, in letting it burn.
The men gathered round Antonio, wondering who he could be, but
he would not answer any questions. He was there an utter stranger
to them all—a prisoner, seized almost in the very act of setting the
building on fire, and yet he stood before them with such an open,
fearless, honest look, that no one knew what to think or to say in
respect to him.
In the mean time the flames rolled fearfully into the air, sending up
columns of sparks, and illuminating all the objects around in the
most brilliant manner. Groups of boys stood here and there, their
faces brightened with the reflection of the fire, and their arms held
up before their eyes to shield them from the dazzling light. A little
further back were companies of women and children, beaming out
beautifully from the surrounding darkness, and a gilded vane on the
village spire appeared relieved against the sky, as if it were a great
blazing meteor at rest among the stars. At length the fire went
down. The people gradually dispersed. The men who had charge of
Antonio took him to the tavern, locked him up in a room there, and
stationed one of their number to keep guard at the door till morning.
 THE CONFLAGRATION.

II. ANTONIO A PRISONER.

During the night, Antonio had time to reflect upon the situation in
which he was placed, and to consider what it was best for him to do.
He decided that the first thing to be done, was to write to Mrs.
Henry, and inform her what had happened. He determined also not
to reveal any thing against Rodolphus, unless he should find that he
was required by law to do so—at least until he could have time to
consider whether something could not yet be done to save him from
the utter ruin which would follow from his being convicted of
burglary and sent to the state prison.
In the morning, an officer came with a regular warrant for arresting
Antonio, on the charge of setting the corn-barn on fire. A warrant is
a paper signed by a justice or judge, authorizing the officer to seize
a prisoner, and to bring him before a magistrate, for what is called
an examination. If, on the examination, the magistrate sees that the
prisoner is clearly innocent, he releases him, and that is the end of
the matter. If, however, he finds that there is reason to suspect that
he may be guilty, he orders the officer to keep him in the jail till the
time comes for the court to meet and try his case.
Sometimes, when the offense is not very serious, they release the
prisoner on bail, as it is called, during the time that intervenes
between his examination and his trial. That is, they give him up to
his friends, on condition that his friends agree that he shall certainly
appear at the time of trial—covenanting that if he does not appear
they will pay a large sum of money. The money that is to be
forfeited, if he fails to appear, varies in different cases, and is fixed
by the judge in each particular case. This money is called the bail. If
the prisoner has a bad character, and his friends generally believe
that he is guilty, he can not get bail, for his friends are afraid that if
they give bail for him, and so let him have his liberty, he will run
away before the time comes for his trial, and then they will lose the
money. When, for this or any other reason, a prisoner can not get
bail, he has to go to prison, and stay there till his trial comes on. On
the other hand, if the prisoner has a good character, and if his
friends have confidence in him, they give bail, and thus he is left at
liberty until his trial comes on.
At the examination of a prisoner, which takes place usually very soon
after he is first arrested, he is allowed to say any thing that he
pleases to say, in explanation of the suspicious circumstances under
which he was taken. He is, however, not required to say any thing
unless he chooses. The reason of this is, that no one is required to
furnish any proof against himself, when he is charged with crime. If
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