15 Batch

1 No.
A)
To develop a data transmission system, which components
are required? How do they work?
Components Required
To develop a data transmission system, the following components
are essential:
1. Message:
o The information to be communicated.
o It can be in the form of text, images, audio, video, or
any other data.
2. Sender (Source):
o The device that creates and sends the message.
o Examples: Computer, mobile phone, microphone.
3. Receiver (Destination):
o The device that receives the message.
o Examples: Computer, mobile phone, speaker.
4. Transmission Medium:
o The physical path through which the message travels
from sender to receiver.
o Examples: Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, or wireless (radio waves).
5. Protocol:
o A set of rules that govern data communication.
 o It defines how the message is formatted, transmitted,
and received.

How They Work

✔ The sender first converts the message into signals (either
analog or digital).
✔ These signals travel through the transmission medium.
✔ Along the way, the signal may pass through various devices like
amplifiers, switches, or routers to ensure reliable delivery.
✔ The receiver captures the signal and converts it back into a
human-understandable or machine-readable form.
✔ Both sender and receiver follow a common protocol to ensure
they interpret the message correctly.
✔ The whole process ensures that the message is transmitted
accurately and efficiently from the source to the destination.

Example:
In an email transmission:
 Sender: Your computer
 Message: The email content
 Transmission Medium: Internet (wired or wireless)
 Receiver: Recipient's computer or phone
 Protocol: SMTP, POP3, IMAP

Conclusion:
All these components must work together properly to ensure
successful data communication between devices.
B) A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated. Explain with
your own words?

A protocol is a set of rules that computers and devices follow to

communicate with each other properly in a network.
The statement means:
1. What is Communicated
✔ It refers to the type of information being exchanged.
✔ This could be text, audio, video, files, or control signals.
✔ Both sender and receiver must agree on the type of message.

2. How it is Communicated
✔ It means the format and method of communication.
✔ It includes how the data is arranged (formatting) and how it is
sent over the medium.
✔ For example, the message may be broken into small packets
and follow certain encoding rules.

3. When it is Communicated
✔ It refers to the timing and control of the communication.
✔ Devices must agree on when to send, when to receive, and
when to wait.
✔ This avoids confusion, collisions, and ensures smooth data flow.

Example:
In a phone call:
 What: Your voice is communicated.
  How: The voice is converted to electrical signals and sent
over the network.
 When: Only one person speaks at a time; the system
ensures proper timing.

Conclusion:
Without a protocol, devices cannot understand each other,
leading to failed communication. Protocols make sure data
exchange happens in an organized, error-free way.

C) When two parties make a telephone call, is this a point

to point or multipoint connection? Explain your logic?

When two parties make a telephone call, it is a Point-to-Point

connection.

Logic/Explanation:
✔ A Point-to-Point connection means there is a dedicated
communication link between exactly two devices or parties.
✔ In a telephone call, only the caller and the receiver are
involved in the conversation.
✔ The communication channel is exclusively used by these two
parties for the duration of the call.
✔ No other device or party shares the connection during that
time.

Example:
When you call your friend on their mobile phone, only your phone
and your friend's phone are part of that connection — making it a
Point-to-Point connection.

Multipoint Comparison (for clarity):

In a multipoint connection, multiple devices share the same
link (e.g., conference calls, shared LAN).

Conclusion:
A normal telephone call between two parties is considered a
Point-to-Point connection because the link is dedicated to only
those two parties during the call.

D) What are the differences between physical, logical and

port address?

Logical
Aspect Physical Address Port Address
Address
Definition The unique address The address The address
assigned to a assigned at the used to identify
device's network network layer specific
 Logical
Aspect Physical Address Port Address
Address
processes or
for
interface. services on a
identification.
device.
IP Address
MAC Address (Media
Also (Internet
Access Control Port Number
Called Protocol
Address)
Address)
Works at the Data Works at the Works at the
Level Link Layer (Layer Network Layer Transport
2) (Layer 3) Layer (Layer 4)
Identifies
Identifies
Identifies devices on specific
devices across
Purpose the same local processes or
different
network. applications on
networks.
a device.
192.168.1.10 or
Format 80 for HTTP,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E 2001:0db8::1
Example 443 for HTTPS
(IPv6)
Chosen by
Usually permanent, Can be dynamic
Permanen applications or
burned into (e.g., assigned
ce system, can be
hardware. by DHCP).
temporary.

Short Explanation:
✔ Physical Address: Unique address of a device's network
interface; works within a local network.
✔ Logical Address: IP address assigned to a device to identify it
across different networks.
✔ Port Address: Identifies a specific process or service running
on a device (e.g., web server, mail server).

Example Scenario:
When you visit a website:
 Your computer's physical address helps your router identify
your device.
 Your logical address (IP) helps your computer
communicate over the internet.
 The port address (like port 80 or 443) tells the server which
service you are requesting.

2 No.
A) List the name of the layers in the TCP/IP protocol.
Define physical address, logical address and port address.
Map these addresses to the TCP/IP layers?
List the Names of the Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
According to Forouzan, the TCP/IP protocol suite consists of
five layers, which are:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Application Layer
These layers work together to enable reliable data communication
over the Internet and other networks.
Definition of Different Types of Addresses
1. Physical Address (MAC Address)
✔ The Physical Address is a unique hardware address assigned
to the Network Interface Card (NIC) of a device.
✔ It operates at the Data Link Layer of the TCP/IP model.
✔ Used for delivering data within the same local network.
Example:
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E (MAC Address format)

2. Logical Address (IP Address)

✔ The Logical Address is assigned to a device to identify it
across different networks.
✔ It operates at the Network Layer of the TCP/IP model.
✔ It is used to route data from the source to the correct
destination across multiple networks.
Example:
192.168.1.10 (IPv4) or 2001:0db8::1 (IPv6)

3. Port Address
✔ The Port Address identifies specific applications or processes
running on a device.
✔ It operates at the Transport Layer of the TCP/IP model.
✔ Ensures that the correct application receives the correct data.
Example:
Port 80 for HTTP, Port 443 for HTTPS

Mapping of These Addresses to TCP/IP Layers

 Associated Layer in TCP/IP
Address Type
Model
Physical
Data Link Layer
Address
Logical
Network Layer
Address
Port Address Transport Layer

Summary Explanation
✔ At the Data Link Layer, the physical (MAC) address helps in
identifying devices within the same local network.
✔ At the Network Layer, logical (IP) addresses allow devices to
communicate across networks.
✔ At the Transport Layer, port addresses ensure the data
reaches the correct process or application on the destination
device.

Conclusion
The combination of Physical, Logical, and Port Addresses
allows for accurate and organized communication, ensuring that
data reaches the correct device and application through the
TCP/IP protocol stack.

B) What are the responsibilities of the presentation layer

and session layer in OSI model?
Responsibilities of the Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
The Presentation Layer is responsible for how data is
translated, formatted, compressed, and encrypted before it
is delivered to the Application Layer.
Key Responsibilities:
1. Data Translation:
✔ Converts data from application-specific formats to a
common format that can be understood across the network.
✔ Example: Converting character encoding from ASCII to
EBCDIC or Unicode.
2. Data Encryption and Decryption:
✔ Ensures secure data transmission by encrypting data
before sending and decrypting data upon receiving.
✔ Example: HTTPS communication uses encryption at this
layer.
3. Data Compression and Decompression:
✔ Reduces the size of the data to improve transmission
efficiency.
✔ Compression saves bandwidth and speeds up data
transfer.
Forouzan explains that the Presentation Layer ensures that the
information sent from the application layer of one system is
readable by the application layer of another, even if they use
different data representations.

Responsibilities of the Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session Layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and
terminating sessions between two communicating devices.
Key Responsibilities:
1. Session Establishment:
✔ Initiates a communication session between two devices.
✔ Ensures both parties are ready for data exchange.
2. Session Maintenance:
✔ Keeps track of the session and manages data exchange.
 ✔ Provides mechanisms like dialog control (decides who can
transmit and when) and synchronization (placing
checkpoints in the communication for recovery in case of
failure).
3. Session Termination:
✔ Ends the session after communication is complete.
✔ Frees up resources and ensures an orderly disconnection.
Forouzan highlights that the Session Layer is essential for
organizing long-duration communication, such as video calls or
file transfers, where maintaining the session's state is important.

Conclusion:
✔ The Presentation Layer focuses on data format,
encryption, and compression.
✔ The Session Layer focuses on controlling the connection
between devices by managing sessions.
✔ Together, they ensure that the transmitted data is properly
formatted, secure, and that communication happens in an
organized, controlled manner.

C) Match the following to one or more layers in OSI model:

(1) Dialog Control
(2) Mechanical, Electrical and Functional Interface
(3) Encryption and Compression
(4) Route selection
(5) Error Control
 (6) Flow Control

Matching OSI Layers:

Term Corresponding OSI Layer(s)
(1) Dialog Control Session Layer (Layer 5)
(2) Mechanical, Electrical, and
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Functional Interface
(3) Encryption and Compression Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
(4) Route Selection Network Layer (Layer 3)
Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and
(5) Error Control
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and
(6) Flow Control
Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Short Explanation for Each:

✔ Dialog Control: Handled by the Session Layer to manage which
device can send or receive data at a given time.
✔ Mechanical, Electrical, and Functional Interface: Defined by the
Physical Layer to ensure proper physical transmission.
✔ Encryption and Compression: Managed by the Presentation
Layer for security and efficient transmission.
✔ Route Selection: Performed by the Network Layer to find the
best path for data.
✔ Error Control: Done at both the Data Link Layer (for link-level
errors) and Transport Layer (for end-to-end errors).
✔ Flow Control: Present at both Data Link and Transport Layers to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
3 No.

A) Use two examples to differentiate between signal and

data elements?
Data Elements:
✔ The smallest unit of information in data communication.
✔ It represents the logical information — usually in binary form —
like bits (0s and 1s).
✔ Data elements are what we want to send.

Signal Elements:
✔ The smallest unit of a signal that is used to represent a data
element during transmission.
✔ They are the physical form of the data — electrical pulses,
voltages, light signals, etc.
✔ Signal elements carry the data elements through the
transmission medium.

Examples to Differentiate:
Example 1: Binary Transmission over a Copper Wire
✔ Suppose we want to transmit the binary data: 1011
✔ The Data Elements are: 1, 0, 1, 1
✔ To represent these data elements, electrical voltage pulses are
generated:
 For 1 → High voltage
 For 0 → Low voltage
✔ Each voltage pulse is a Signal Element, carrying a Data
Element.
Example 2: Optical Fiber Transmission
✔ Binary data to be transmitted: 010
✔ The Data Elements are: 0, 1, 0
✔ In optical fiber, light pulses represent the signal:
 Presence of light → 1 (Data Element) → Signal Element (light
pulse)
 Absence of light → 0 (Data Element) → Signal Element (no
light)
Conclusion:
✔ Data Elements are the information we want to send.
✔ Signal Elements are how that information is physically
transmitted over the medium.

B) What is the necessity of line coding? Write down the

names of different line coding?

Necessity of Line Coding

Line Coding is the process of converting digital data (binary 0s
and 1s) into a digital signal suitable for transmission over a
physical medium, such as a wire or optical fiber.
Why Line Coding is Necessary:
1. Signal Representation:
✔ Digital data (0s and 1s) cannot travel through the medium
directly. Line coding converts them into electrical, optical, or
other signals for transmission.
2. Synchronization:
✔ Proper line coding schemes help the receiver stay
synchronized with the sender, ensuring correct interpretation
of the incoming signal.
3. Error Detection:
✔ Some line coding schemes help detect errors during
transmission by introducing specific patterns.
4. Efficient Bandwidth Usage:
✔ Well-designed line coding schemes minimize bandwidth
consumption and avoid unnecessary signal transitions.
5. DC Component Elimination:
✔ Some line coding techniques eliminate the DC component
(constant voltage level), making the signal more suitable for
certain transmission media.
6. Noise and Interference Resistance:
✔ Proper line coding helps signals resist noise and
interference to a certain extent, improving communication
reliability.
✔ Allows binary data to be physically transmitted.
✔ Ensures synchronization between sender and receiver.
✔ Helps eliminate DC components.
✔ Reduces bandwidth requirements.
✔ Improves signal reliability against noise.
✔ Enables error detection in some cases.

Types of Line Coding (Complete According to Forouzan)

1. Unipolar Line Coding:
✔ Uses one voltage level (usually positive) to represent binary
1, and zero voltage for binary 0.
✔ Example: Unipolar NRZ

2. Polar Line Coding:

✔ Uses two voltage levels, positive and negative, to represent
binary 1 and 0.
✔ Common types:
 NRZ-Level (Non-Return to Zero-Level)
 NRZ-Inverted
 Return to Zero (RZ)
 Manchester Encoding
 Differential Manchester Encoding

3. Bipolar Line Coding:

✔ Uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
✔ Binary 1s alternate between positive and negative voltages,
binary 0 is represented by zero voltage.
✔ Example: AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

4. Multilevel Line Coding:

✔ Uses more than two voltage levels to represent binary data.
✔ Efficient for reducing bandwidth requirements.
✔ Common types:
 2B1Q (2 Binary, 1 Quaternary)
 8B6T (8 Binary, 6 Ternary)

5. Multitransition Line Coding:

✔ Uses multiple signal transitions to represent binary data,
often for enhanced synchronization.
✔ Example:
 MLT-3 (Multilevel Transmit - 3 levels)
✔ MLT-3 reduces bandwidth usage by ensuring that three
voltage levels cycle through transitions rather than
representing bits directly.

Conclusion:
Line coding is essential for efficient, reliable, and synchronized
data transmission. Forouzan categorizes line coding schemes
into Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, Multilevel, and
Multitransition, each with its own advantages for specific
transmission requirements.

C) You need to send 200 kbps over a noiseless channel

with a bandwidth of 30 kHz. How many signal levels do
you need?

Use Nyquist theorem

D) A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000

Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communication.
The capacity of a channel is 34860 bps. Calculate the
SNR for this channel?

Use Shanon’s capacity theorem

4 No.

A) Explain the difference between the AMI and

Pseudoternary bipolar line coding schemes with figure?

Both AMI and Pseudoternary are types of bipolar line coding,

which use three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
They improve upon unipolar and polar schemes by reducing the
DC component and helping with synchronization.

1. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)

✔ In AMI, also called Bipolar-AMI,
 Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and
negative voltages.
 Binary 0s are represented by zero voltage (no signal).
The polarity of 1s alternates to avoid DC bias and helps in
error detection.
. Pseudoternary
✔ In Pseudoternary,
 Binary 0s are represented by alternating positive and
negative voltages.
 Binary 1s are represented by zero voltage (no signal).
The polarity of 0s alternates to help with synchronization and
reduce the DC component.
Aspect AMI Pseudoternary
Bipolar
Alternatio Alternates for 1s Alternates for 0s
n
Zero
Represents 0s Represents 1s
Voltage
DC component Same purpose
Used for elimination, but with inverted
synchronization logic
Example Telecommunication Data networks
 Aspect AMI Pseudoternary
with specific
Use Case systems coding
requirements

B) Convert a digital signal into analog one using

amplitude shift keying and frequency shift keying. The
bit rate of Digital signal is 5 ?
Definition:
In ASK, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied to represent
binary data, while the frequency and phase remain constant.
Representation:
✔ For binary 1, transmit a carrier signal with high amplitude.
✔ For binary 0, transmit a carrier signal with low amplitude
(sometimes zero amplitude, meaning no signal).
Example:
Suppose the carrier frequency is 1 kHz (for easy illustration)
and we have the digital data:
10110
 For each bit lasting 1/5 seconds (since bit rate = 5 bps), the
amplitude changes accordingly.
 You would draw a sine wave with high amplitude for 1s and
low or zero amplitude for 0s.

2. Using Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

Definition:
In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent binary data, while the amplitude and phase remain
constant.
Representation:
✔ For binary 1, use a high frequency carrier.
✔ For binary 0, use a low frequency carrier.
Example:
Let:
 Frequency for binary 1 = 2 kHz
 Frequency for binary 0 = 1 kHz
Given the digital data:
10110
 For each bit lasting 1/5 seconds, the frequency changes
between 1 kHz and 2 kHz according to the bit.

Conclusion:
✔ Using ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal changes to
represent the bits.
✔ Using FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal changes to
represent the bits.
✔ Both techniques convert the 5 bps digital signal into an
analog waveform suitable for transmission over an analog
medium like telephone lines or radio waves.

C) Discuss the constellation diagram? Draw the

constellation diagram for BPSK and QPSK?
Constellation Diagram (2 Marks)
A constellation diagram is a graphical tool used to represent
the symbols in digital modulation schemes like ASK, PSK, and
QAM.
✔ It shows the amplitude and phase of each possible signal
state as a point on a two-dimensional plane, called the I-Q
plane (In-phase and Quadrature axes).
✔ The position of the points indicates how symbols differ in
amplitude and phase.
✔ The spacing between points relates to the system’s ability to
resist noise — larger spacing reduces error probability.
Constellation diagrams help visualize and analyze complex
digital modulation techniques.

D) Explain the amplitude modulation technique. What

purpose does it serve?
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is an analog modulation technique
in which the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier signal is
varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal, while the frequency and phase remain
constant.
Explanation:
✔ The message signal (such as voice or music) cannot travel
efficiently over long distances.
✔ To overcome this, a high-frequency carrier signal is used.
✔ The carrier's amplitude changes according to the information
in the message signal.
✔ The modulated signal is then transmitted over the
communication medium.
Purpose of Amplitude Modulation (1 Mark)
✔ AM allows low-frequency signals to be transmitted over long
distances using radio waves.
✔ It is widely used in AM radio broadcasting, where audio
signals are transmitted using amplitude variation.

Conclusion:
Amplitude Modulation is essential for radio broadcasting and
long-distance wireless communication by effectively combining
message signals with carrier waves.
B) Discuss the significance of multiplexing in data
communication?
Significance of Multiplexing in Data Communication
✔ Multiplexing allows multiple signals to share the same
communication medium or channel.

Key Points:
1. Efficient Resource Utilization:
o Multiple signals share the same medium, reducing the
need for extra cables or connections.
2. Cost-Effective:
o Fewer physical lines are required, reducing overall
transmission costs.
3. Increased Transmission Capacity:
o Multiple signals can be transmitted simultaneously,
improving system capacity.
4. Supports Simultaneous Communication:
o Multiple users can communicate at the same time
without interference.
5. Essential for Modern Systems:
 o Used in telephone lines, radio, internet, and TV
broadcasting.

Example:
✔ Telephone networks use TDM.
✔ Radio broadcasting uses FDM.

Conclusion:
Multiplexing improves efficiency, reduces cost, and enables
multiple signals to be transmitted over a single medium.
C) Make a list of fundamental multiplexing methods for
analog signal. Explain wave-length- division
multiplexing technique with figure?

List of Fundamental Multiplexing Methods for Analog

Signal (1 Mark)
✔ 1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
✔ 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Explanation (3

Marks)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technique
used in fiber-optic communication where multiple optical
signals, each with a unique wavelength (color of light), are
transmitted simultaneously through a single optical fiber.
How it Works:
✔ Each data signal is assigned a different wavelength.
✔ A multiplexer at the sender’s end combines all the
wavelengths into one fiber.
✔ A demultiplexer at the receiver’s end separates the
wavelengths back into individual data signals.

Advantages:
✔ Increases the capacity of optical fiber cables without
additional physical infrastructure.
✔ Allows simultaneous transmission of multiple independent
data streams.
✔ Provides high-speed and high-bandwidth communication,
ideal for internet backbones and telecommunication networks.

Example:
Modern WDM systems can transmit dozens or even
hundreds of light signals over a single fiber, enabling
extremely fast data transfer.

Conclusion:
WDM efficiently utilizes the vast bandwidth of optical fibers,
making it a key technology for modern, high-capacity
communication systems.
D) Four channels, two with 300 kHz bandwidth and two
with 200 kHz are to be multiplexed together. Find the
minimum bandwidth of the link. To avoid interaction,
the channels are separated by an 8 kHz guard band ?

6 No.

A) State and explain the Nyquist Theorem. Write the

equation for calculating the capacity of a noiseless
channel. Assume that a voice channel occupies a
bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine four voice
channels into a link starting from channel bandwidth 20
kHz. Show the configuration with use of guard band of 1
kHz ?

B) Define Bandwidth and Throughput. A network with

bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of
12000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an
average of 10000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network. Deduce the relationship between and
throughput ?

Definition of Bandwidth and Throughput (2 Marks)

✔ Bandwidth:
Bandwidth is the maximum capacity of a communication
channel to carry data, usually measured in bits per second
(bps). It represents the theoretical data rate of the channel.
✔ Throughput:
Throughput is the actual data rate achieved during
communication. It depends on various factors like network
conditions, errors, and delays. Throughput is usually less than
or equal to bandwidth.

Throughput Calculation (1 Mark)

Given:
✔ Bandwidth = 10 Mbps
✔ Frames per minute = 12,000
✔ Average bits per frame = 10,000 bits
Step 1: Total bits per minute
12,000×10,000=120,000,000 bits per minute12,000 \times
10,000 = 120,000,000 \, \text{bits per
minute}12,000×10,000=120,000,000bits per minute
Step 2: Convert to bits per second (bps)
120,000,00060=2,000,000 bps=2 Mbps\frac{120,000,000}
{60} = 2,000,000 \, \text{bps} = 2 \, \
text{Mbps}60120,000,000=2,000,000bps=2Mbps
Final Throughput:
The throughput is 2 Mbps.

Relationship Between Bandwidth and Throughput (1

Mark)
✔ Bandwidth defines the theoretical maximum capacity,
while throughput represents the practical, achieved data
rate.
✔ Throughput is always less than or equal to bandwidth,
due to factors like noise, errors, network congestion, and
protocol overhead.
C) What is latency? Briefly describe each component of
latency in data communication ?
Latency in Data Communication (1 Mark)
Latency is the total time taken for a message or data to travel
from the source to the destination across a network. It is
usually measured in milliseconds (ms) and represents the
delay experienced during transmission.

Components of Latency (3 Marks)

The total latency consists of four key components:
1. Propagation Delay
✔ Time taken for the signal to travel through the medium (e.g.,
cable, fiber).
✔ Depends on the distance between sender and receiver and
the speed of the signal in the medium.
Propagation Delay=DistancePropagation Speed\
text{Propagation Delay} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\
text{Propagation
Speed}}Propagation Delay=Propagation SpeedDistance

2. Transmission Delay
✔ Time taken to push all the bits of the message onto the
communication link.
✔ Depends on the size of the message and the bandwidth
of the channel.
Transmission Delay=Message SizeBandwidth\text{Transmission
Delay} = \frac{\text{Message Size}}{\
text{Bandwidth}}Transmission Delay=BandwidthMessage Size

3. Processing Delay
✔ Time required by devices (like routers, switches) to process
the packet header, check for errors, or decide the next hop.
✔ Typically occurs at intermediate devices along the path.

4. Queuing Delay
✔ Time the packet spends waiting in queues inside routers or
switches before being transmitted.
✔ Depends on the level of network congestion.

Conclusion:
Total latency is the sum of these four delays. Minimizing these
factors is essential for fast and efficient data communication.

7 No.

A) Describe the advantages of Frame relay over X.25?

Advantages of Frame Relay over X.25 (4 Marks)

Frame Relay is an efficient, high-speed packet-switching technology that

offers several improvements over the older X.25 standard:

1. Higher Data Rates:

✔ Frame Relay supports data rates ranging from 56 kbps to several

Mbps, making it suitable for modern high-speed applications.
✔ X.25 was designed for much lower speeds (commonly up to 64 kbps).

2. Reduced Protocol Overhead:

✔ Frame Relay has a simpler protocol structure, with minimal error

checking and flow control at the network level.
✔ X.25 performs extensive error checking and flow control at every node,
which increases overhead and slows down transmission.

3. Lower End-to-End Delay:

✔ Frame Relay relies on the reliability of modern digital networks, so it

eliminates node-to-node error correction, reducing delay.
✔ X.25 was built for unreliable, noisy analog lines, requiring per-hop error
correction, resulting in higher latency.

4. Efficient for Digital Networks:

✔ Frame Relay is optimized for today's fiber optic and digital

communication lines, where errors are rare.
✔ X.25 was suitable for older, noisy analog telephone lines, making it
outdated for modern network environments.

5. Cost-Effective:

✔ Due to its simplicity and high-speed capability, Frame Relay provides

better cost-to-performance ratio than X.25, especially for large data
transmission.

Conclusion:

Frame Relay provides higher speed, lower overhead, reduced delay, and
better efficiency for modern digital networks, making it a significant
improvement over X.25.

B) What do you know about routing table? Explain RIP with

example?

Routing Table (2 Marks)

A routing table is a database maintained by a router that contains

information about how to forward packets toward their destinations.

Key Points:

✔ It lists available network destinations and the best possible paths to

reach them.
✔ Each entry typically includes:

 Destination Network

 Next-Hop Address

 Metric (cost)

 Interface to use

Routers use the routing table to decide the next hop for each incoming
packet.

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) (2 Marks)

RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol used in computer networks
to help routers share information and build their routing tables.

How RIP Works:

✔ Routers periodically exchange routing table information with their

neighbors (every 30 seconds).
✔ The routing decision is based on the hop count, where each router hop
adds a cost of 1.
✔ The maximum hop count allowed is 15, making RIP suitable only for
small networks.

Example:

Suppose Router A is connected to Router B, which is connected to Router

C:

 Router A learns about the network connected to Router C via Router B.

 If the network is 2 hops away, Router A adds an entry in its routing

table with a hop count of 2 for that network.

 If a better (shorter) path becomes available, RIP updates the table with
the new route.

Conclusion:

A routing table helps routers forward packets efficiently, and RIP is a

simple, widely-used protocol that updates routing tables based on hop
count.

C) Explain the technologies of circuit switching ?

Technologies of Circuit Switching (4 Marks)

Circuit Switching is a communication method where a dedicated

communication path is established between two devices for the entire
duration of the communication session.

It is commonly used in traditional telephone networks.

Key Technologies/Components Involved:

1. Dedicated Physical Path:

✔ A fixed, physical path is established between the sender and receiver

before communication begins.
✔ The path remains reserved exclusively for them throughout the session.

2. Three Phases of Circuit Switching:

✔ a) Connection Establishment:

 A dedicated path is created through intermediate switches.

 No data transmission occurs until the connection is fully established.

✔ b) Data Transfer:

 Once the path is established, data flows continuously and in order,

similar to a direct wire.

 The channel is exclusively used for this communication.

✔ c) Connection Teardown:

 After data transfer, the circuit is released, and resources are freed for
others.

3. Switching Techniques Used:

✔ Space Division Switching:

 Uses physical switching paths (like crossbar switches) to establish the

circuit.

✔ Time Division Switching:

 Uses time slots within a shared physical path to establish logical

circuits.

4. Example:

✔ Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is based on circuit switching

technology.
✔ A telephone call establishes a temporary dedicated circuit for voice
transmission.

Conclusion:

Circuit switching provides a reliable, dedicated path for communication,

but it can be inefficient when the channel remains idle during pauses in
conversation.

8 No.

B) Why is delta modulation used? Explain the working of delta

modulation technique?

Why is Delta Modulation (DM) Used? (1 Mark)

✔ Delta Modulation is used to convert analog signals to digital form

with simpler encoding compared to other methods like PCM (Pulse Code
Modulation).
✔ It reduces the number of bits per sample by only transmitting
information about signal change direction, making it bandwidth-
efficient and easy to implement.

Working of Delta Modulation Technique (2 Marks)

✔ In Delta Modulation, the analog signal is approximated by a staircase-

like signal that moves up or down based on the comparison with the
previous sample.

Steps of Working:

1. At each sampling instant, the current sample is compared with the

previous approximation.

2. If the current signal is higher, a binary 1 is sent, and the approximation

is increased by a fixed step size.

3. If the current signal is lower, a binary 0 is sent, and the approximation

is decreased by a fixed step size.

4. This process continues, creating a digital bit stream that represents the
analog signal's changes.
Conclusion:

Delta Modulation simplifies the process of analog-to-digital conversion,

using fewer bits and reducing bandwidth requirements.

C) ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM are popular for digital-to-analog

conversion. Among them which one is the most susceptible to
noise? Justify your answer.

Most Susceptible to Noise:

Among ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM, the most susceptible to noise is
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Justification:

✔ In ASK, information is carried by varying the amplitude of the carrier

signal.
✔ Noise in communication channels often affects the amplitude of the
signal more than its frequency or phase.
✔ As a result, even small noise or signal distortions can alter the
amplitude, leading to errors in detecting the correct bit values.

Conclusion:

✔ ASK is the most susceptible to noise among these techniques, which

limits its use to short-distance or noise-free environments.

D) Find the bandwidth of the following situations id we need to

modulate a 5 kHz voice.
1) Amplitude modulation
2) Frequency modulation (B=5)

3) Phase modulation (B=5)