Module-III

ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR BIOENGINEERING DESIGN

The human body is a biological machine made of body systems; groups of organs that work together to
produce and sustain life. All these organs together are called as human organ systems. There are several
organ systems in the human body, each with its own set of organs and functions.
Organ systems are: Skeletal system, Muscular system, Cardiovascular system, Respiratory system,
Nervous system, Digestive system, Urinary system, Endocrine system, Lymphatic system,
Reproductive system, Integumentary system. These organ systems work together to maintain the
overall health and functioning of the human body.
BRAIN
The brain is the center of the nervous system in humans. It is located within the skull. It is a complex
and vital organ and is responsible for controlling and coordinating various bodily functions. The brain
plays central role in processing information from the senses, enabling perception, thinking, and
consciousness.
The brain is composed of billions of specialized cells called neurons. These neurons form intricate
networks and pathways throughout the brain and the rest of the body. This network allows the
transmission of information and communication with each other through electrical and chemical
signals.
The Architecture of the brain:
The brain is a highly complex organ. It consists of several distinct regions, each with its own
specialized functions. The structural organization and the arrangement of various components of brain
is referred to as architecture of the brain.
An overview of the major structural components of the brain and their functions is given briefly below:
1. Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent
part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, called as
the left and right cerebrums. These two are connected by a
bundle of nerve fibers. The cerebrum is responsible for higher
cognitive functions, including conscious thought, reasoning,
memory, language processing, perception, and voluntary
movements.
2. Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. The main
functions of this part are motor control, coordination, balance, and posture. The cerebellum receives
sensory information from the muscles and joints and helps in fine-tuning movements and maintaining
equilibrium.
3. Brainstem: The brainstem is located at the base of the brain and connects the brain to the spinal
cord. The brainstem is responsible for essential functions like regulating breathing, heart rate, blood
pressure, and basic involuntary actions.

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4. Thalamus: The thalamus is a structure located deep within the brain. It acts as a relay station. It
receives sensory information from various senses and directs it to the appropriate regions of the
cerebral cortex for processing.
5. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a small area located below the thalamus. It plays a crucial role
in maintaining various bodily functions, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and hormone
production through its control of the pituitary gland.
6. Limbic System: The limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures involved in
emotions, memory formation, and motivation. The main structures in limbic system are hippocampus
(important for memory), and amygdala (associated with emotions and fear response).
7. Cortex: The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the cerebrum and is responsible for higher
cognitive functions. It has four lobes and each lobe has distinct functions, such as motor control,
sensory processing, language, and visual perception.
These are some of the major components of the brain's architecture. The brain's complexity arises from
the intricate connections and interactions among its different regions. The integration of information
and the execution of a wide range of cognitive and physiological processes are due to this complex
network.
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) are the two main
components of the nervous system in the human body.
Brain as a CPU system
Brain can be compared with CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a computer because both process
information. But they differ significantly in their structure, functioning, and capabilities. Human brain
is more complex and sophisticated than any computer system we currently have.
Main similarities between the brain and a CPU system are:
Function Brain CPU
Information The brain processes information from The CPU in a computer is
processing various sources, including sensory inputs responsible for executing instructions
and internal cognitive processes. and processing data

Parallel The brain contains a vast network of CPU has multiple cores that can
processing interconnected neurons that work in parallel perform computations
to process information and carry out various simultaneously.
tasks simultaneously.
Task allocation The brain has specialized regions In a CPU system, tasks are assigned
responsible for different functions, such as to different cores based on their
vision, language processing, motor control, nature and computational
and memory. requirements

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Speed and The brain, with its intricate neural CPUs are designed to perform
efficiency connections and optimized circuitry, is also calculations quickly and efficiently.
capable of processing information at high
speeds and adapting its functioning based
on the demands of the task.

Differences between the brain and a CPU system

Function Brain CPU
Complexity The brain is a complex organ with billions CPUs are engineered systems with a
of neurons and trillions of synapses. The finite number of components and
brain's architecture, plasticity, and ability defined abilities
to learn and adapt far surpass the
capabilities of any CPU system.
Neural plasticity The brain exhibits plasticity. It can rewire CPUs have fixed circuitry and
its connections and adapt its functioning instructions. Plasticity feature is not
based on experience and learning. present in traditional CPU systems.
Energy The brain is remarkably energy-efficient CPUs generate heat and consume
efficiency compared to computer CPUs. It can large amount of energy
perform complex computations with
relatively low energy consumption.
Analog nature The brain's neural activity is primarily CPUs operate using digital signals
analog in nature. Neurons communicate (1s and 0s).
using electrical potentials and chemical
signals.
Speed The brain cannot function as fast as CPU CPUs are faster than brain at
in a specific defined task. But, it can executing specific tasks requiring
process information in parallel and has precise calculations.
cognitive capabilities. It can efficiently
handle complex real-world tasks such as
perception, learning, and creative problem-
solving.

Architecture of Eye:-
The human eye is a wonderful instrument, relying on refraction and lenses to form images. The
structure of eye has various components which work together to facilitate vision. Main components of
eye and their role are given below:

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1. Cornea: The cornea is a clear, dome-shaped structure
located at the front of the eye. It helps to focus incoming light
onto the lens and plays a crucial role in the eye's overall
optical power.
2. Iris: The iris is the coloured part of the eye. The central
opening in the iris is called as pupil. The amount of light
entering the eye depends on size of pupil. Iris has muscles that
can control the size of the pupil and regulates the amount of
light entering the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil.
3. Lens: Lens is located behind the iris and pupil. The lens is a transparent, flexible structure that
focuses light onto the retina. It changes shape to allow the eye to focus on objects at different distances,
a process known as accommodation.
4. Retina: The retina is a thin, light-sensitive layer located at the back of the eye. It contains
specialized cells called photoreceptors. Rods and cones are photoreceptor cells present in retina.
Photoreceptors present in retina convert light into electrical signals. The retina also contains other cells
that process and transmit these signals to the brain through the optic nerve.
5. Optic Nerve: The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the
retina to the brain. They carry electrical signals from the back of the eye and transmit to the visual
processing centres in the brain.

Architecture of rod and cone cells:-

Rod and cone cells are photoreceptor cells located in the retina of the eye. They play a crucial role in
the process of vision by converting light into electrical signals. These signals are then transferred to the
brain through the optic nerve.
These photoreceptors are localized around an area near the centre of the retina called the macula, which
is the functional center of the retina. The fovea is located in the centre of the macula. The macula is
responsible for high-resolution, color vision, provided by different types of photoreceptors.
Both rod and cone cells are responsible for visual perception, but, they differ in their structure and
function. Rods and cones are structurally compartmentalized. They consist of five principal regions:
Outer segment, connecting cilium, Inner segment, nuclear region, Synaptic region.
Rod Cells:
• Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye. They are long and cylindrical in shape.
• They are more in number than cone cells. On average, there are approximately 92 million rod cells
in the human retina compared to 6 million cone cells.
• Rod cells are highly sensitive to light and are specialized for vision in dim or low-light conditions.
• They do not provide colour vision or fine detail perception.
• They are found concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and are responsible for peripheral
vision.

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• They can detect motion, and provide vision in low-light conditions. Rod cells contain a
photopigment called rhodopsin.
• Rod cells transmit the electrical signals from the rods to the ganglion cells in the retina. This
pathway is responsible for transmitting visual information to the brain.

Cone Cells:
• Cone cells are cone-shaped and have a shorter and wider structure compared to rod cells.
• They are mainly concentrated in the central region of the retina, known as the fovea.
• Cone cells contain three types of photo-pigments.
• These pigments are responsible for colour vision and are most sensitive to different wavelengths of
light: short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths.
• They provide the ability to distinguish colours and perceive fine details.
• Cone cells have a lower sensitivity to light compared to rod cells and require brighter light
conditions (photopic vision) for activation.
• They are responsible for bright light vision.
• Cone cells also transmit the electrical signals to the ganglion cells for further processing and
transmission to the brain.

Eye as a Camera System:-

The eye can be considered as a complex camera system due to its similarities in capturing and
processing of visual information. The simple analogy between eye and camera is given below
Different Parts Eye Camera
Cornea and In the eye, the cornea and lens focus In a camera, the lens focuses light onto
Lens incoming light onto the retina, which acts the image sensor or film.
as the eye's "image sensor."
Iris and The iris in the eye controls the size of the Camera's aperture and shutter speed
Pupil: pupil which regulates the amount light that regulates the amount of light that
Aperture enters eye. enters the camera.

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 Retina : The retina in the eye contains specialized The image sensor or film in a camera
Image sensor cells called photoreceptors, mainly rods captures image.
and cones cells. They capture light and
convert it into electrical signals.
Rods and Rods are highly sensitive to light and are Pixels in a camera's image sensor play
Cones: Pixels responsible for vision in low-light the role of rods and cones cells in the
conditions, while cones are responsible for eye.
colour vision and high-resolution details.
Optic Nerve: The optic nerve carries visual information In camera, the cables or connectors
Cables or from the retina to the brain for further transmit electrical signals from the
connectors processing and interpretation. camera's image sensor to the
processing unit.
Image In the eye, the information is processed in In a camera, the image sensor's signals
Processing the retina and transmitted to the brain for are processed by the camera's
interpretation. electronics and can be further
modified or enhanced digitally.
Focus and The eye has ability to adjust focus and Cameras have autofocus and manual
Accommodat accommodation, allowing for clear vision focus mechanisms.
ion at different distances.
Eye lids and The eyelids in the eye act as a protective The lens cap or camera body cover is
Tears cover. Tears lubricate and cleanse the eye's used to shield the camera's lens and
surface, maintaining optimal vision and sensor. Lens cleaning solutions are
protecting against dryness. used to keep camera lenses clean

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Heart as a pump system
Architecture
The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the body. It works continuously
to ensure the delivery of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other vital substances to the tissues and
organs and removing waste products.
The heart pumps blood in a coordinated and cyclical manner through a series of contractions and
relaxations
 The heart has four chambers: two upper
chambers called atrium (left and right atrium)
and two lower chambers called ventricles (Left
and right ventricles).
 Deoxygenated blood from the body's tissues,
enters the heart through two large veins called
the superior vena cava (from the upper body)
and inferior vena cava (from the lower body).
This blood enters the right atrium.
 When the right atrium contracts, it pushes the
deoxygenated blood through a valve called the
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
 The right ventricle contracts, pumping the deoxygenated blood through another valve called the
pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery.
 The pulmonary artery carries the deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood picks up
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, a waste product.
 Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart through four pulmonary veins and flows into the
left atrium.
 When the left atrium contracts, it pushes the oxygenated blood through a valve called the mitral
valve into the left ventricle.
 The left ventricle, which is the strongest chamber of the heart, contracts and pumps the oxygenated
blood through another valve called the aortic valve into the aorta.
 The aorta is the largest artery in the body and carries the oxygenated blood to all the organs and
tissues, supplying them with oxygen and nutrients.
 The organs and tissues extract oxygen and nutrients from the blood and release waste products, such
as carbon dioxide, into the bloodstream.
 Deoxygenated blood, carrying waste products, returns to the heart through the superior vena cava
and inferior vena cava, and the whole process starts again.
The coordinated contractions and relaxations of the heart chambers, along with the opening and closing
of valves, ensure efficient blood flow throughout the cardiovascular system. Deoxygenated blood from

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the body drains to the right side of the heart. This is the first pump that sends blood to the lungs, called
the pulmonary circulation, where it becomes oxygenated and releases carbon dioxide.
The human heart is very strong and is capable of pumping blood up to 30 feet distance. An average
heart beats maximum of 70-80 beats per minute and is considered healthy. The efficiency of the heart
can be maintained and improved by performing physical activity. The heart is called a double pump
because each side pumps blood to a different circulation.

Electrical signal system in the heart:-

 The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of electrical and chemical signals,
which generate the rhythm of the heartbeat.
 The electrical signal originates in a specialized group of cells called the Sinoatrial (SA) Node or
SA node, located in the upper part of the right atrium. The SA node acts as the natural pacemaker of
the heart. It generates electrical impulses that initiate each heartbeat.
 Atrial Conduction: The electrical impulses spread across the atria and causes contraction of atria.
This contraction pushes blood from the atria into the ventricles.
 Atrioventricular (AV) Node is located at the junction between the atria and ventricles. The AV
node acts as a gatekeeper. It delays the electrical impulses briefly at the atria and allows it to fully
contract. This results in complete transfer of blood from atria to ventricle and thus, efficient filling
of the ventricles.
 This electrical pulse travels down through the conduction pathways and causes the heart's lower
chambers (ventricles) to contract and blood out of the heart. The electrical signals initiate the
contraction of the ventricles from the bottom upwards, ensuring an efficient squeezing action.
 After contraction, the electrical signals cease, and the heart muscles relax. This relaxation phase
allows the chambers to refill with blood in preparation for the next heartbeat.
 The electrical signal system in the heart ensures a regular and coordinated rhythm of contractions.
This allows the heart to efficiently pump blood throughout the body. Any disruptions or
abnormalities in the electrical system can lead to heart rhythm disorders, such as arrhythmias.
Lungs
Lungs are responsible for breathing, gas exchange, oxygenation of blood, removal of carbon dioxide,
acid-base balance regulation, and defence against foreign particles. Hence, the proper functioning of
lungs is crucial for maintaining the body's overall health and well-being.
Architecture of lungs:
The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the chest (thorax).The primary
function of lungs is to facilitate the exchange of gases between the air we breathe and the bloodstream.
Trachea: The trachea is the main airway consisting of a rigid tube made of cartilage rings that connects
the larynx (voice box) to the bronchi. It serves as the main passageway for air to enter and exit the
lungs

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Bronchi: The trachea divides into two main
branches one leading to each lung called as
bronchi.
Bronchioles: The bronchi further divide into
smaller airways, narrow branches known as
bronchioles. This branching network extends
throughout the lungs. Bronchioles contain smooth
muscle which can contract or expand easily to
regulate airflow.
Alveoli: Alveoli are tiny, grape-like air sacs at the ends of the bronchioles. They are the primary sites
of gas exchange in the lungs. Each lung contains millions of alveoli. They provide a large surface area
for efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
Pulmonary Capillaries: Alveolus is surrounded by networks of tiny blood vessels called as pulmonary
capillaries, which allow the exchange of gases between the air in the alveoli and the bloodstream.
Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. It plays a crucial role in
respiration. It contracts and flattens during inhalation and hence increases the volume of the chest
cavity. This allows the lungs to expand during inhalation.
The lungs are covered by a thin tissue layer called the pleura.

Lungs as Purification System:

The lung purifies the inhaled air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the
bloodstream. The process of purification can be describes as follows:
• When we breathe, the nose and nasal passages act as the first line of defense and can trap larger
particles such as dust, pollen, and pollutants.
• The mucus lining of the respiratory tract remove particles, preventing them from reaching deeper
into the lungs.
• The cilia, tiny hair-like structures lining the airways work in coordination with the mucus to move
trapped particles upward, where they can be expelled by coughing or swallowing.
• The respiratory system, including the lungs, has an immune defense system that helps protect
against pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
• The mucus in the respiratory tract contains antibodies and enzymes that can neutralize or destroy
pathogens.
• The lungs plays main role in removing carbon dioxide from blood.
• The lungs help regulate the pH balance of the blood by controlling the levels of carbon dioxide.
Lungs remove carbon dioxide from blood and helps in maintaining optimal pH level of blood.

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Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung
The gas exchange mechanism involves inhaling oxygen-rich air and exhaling carbon dioxide rich air.
• The diaphragm contracts, and the rib cage expands, enlarging the chest cavity causes the
expansion of lungs. As the lung volume increases the pressure inside the lungs decreases.
• Due to difference in pressure, air from the environment enters in to the nose and passes through
nasal passages to trachea.
• Air passes through bronchi, bronchioles and diffuses across the thin walls of the alveoli (tiny air
sacs in the lungs) into the surrounding blood capillaries.
• The concentration of oxygen in the alveoli of
the lungs is higher than in the blood. Oxygen
binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells
forming oxyhemoglobin.
• This oxygenated blood is then transported to
the heart, which pumps it to various organs
and tissues in the body. In the body cells,
oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells
(concentration of oxygen is less) for energy
production and metabolism.
• Simultaneously, carbon dioxide, a waste product generated by cellular metabolism binds with
hemoglobin forming carboxyhemoglobin.
• Carboxyhemoglobin in blood is transported to the heart, which pumps it back into the alveoli of
lungs. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and into the alveoli.
• The diaphragm relaxes and the rib cage contracts, decreasing the volume of the chest cavity.
• This increase in pressure in the lungs causes the exhalation of carbon dioxide-rich air from the
lungs through the trachea and out of the body.
• Gas exchange in the lungs involves the movement of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) across
the thin walls of the alveoli (air sacs) and the surrounding pulmonary capillaries.
Kidney:-
• Kidneys remove wastes and extra fluid from the bloodstream and maintaining electrolyte
balance, hormones, and other substances.
• Apart from filtration of waste materials from blood stream, it also remove acid that is produced
by the cells of the body and maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals—such as
sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium—in the blood.
• Regulating blood pressure by secreting the hormone renin, it regulates red blood cell production
by secreting erythropoietin.
• The kidneys play a role in activating vitamin D, which is important for calcium absorption in
the intestines and keeps bone strong.

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Architecture of Kidney:
• Cortex: The outermost layer of the kidney,
containing millions of tiny nephrons responsible
for filtering our blood.
• Renal Medulla: The medulla contains renal
pyramids, which are triangular structures. Each
pyramid consists of tiny tubules called renal
tubules.
• Renal Pelvis: The renal pelvis is a funnel-shaped
structure at the innermost region of the kidney
• Nephron: The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood and
producing urine. Each kidney contains millions of nephrons. A nephron consists of several
components:
• Renal Corpuscle (Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule): The glomerulus is a network of
capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule which is cup-shaped structure.
• Proximal convoluted tubule: Tubule has highly coiled and convoluted structure with a large
surface area. A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important substances, such as
glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
• Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that extends into the medulla that is
critical for the reabsorption of ions and water.
• Distal convoluted tubule: The filtrate from the loop of Henle enters the DCT, where further
adjustments to electrolyte and water balance occur.
• Collecting duct: The collecting duct receives urine from multiple nephrons and transports it to
the renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the bladder.
• Ureter: Each kidney is connected to the urinary bladder by a tube called the ureter.
• Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into smaller arterioles,
including the afferent arteriole that feeds blood into the glomerulus. Blood leaves the
glomerulus through the efferent arteriole, which further divides into a network of capillaries
surrounding the renal tubules.
• The renal artery carries oxygenated blood to the kidney, while the renal vein carries
deoxygenated blood away from the kidney, after it has been filtered.
• The kidney is surrounded by a layer of perirenal fat that provides cushioning and protection.
The kidney is also enclosed by a fibrous capsule that helps maintain its shape.
Kidney as a filtration system- Mechanism of filtration:
The main role of kidney is to filter out waste products from blood stream. Hence, it is considered as a
filtration system.
• Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries further blood flows to nephron consists of
complex network of blood vessels.
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 • A nephron is the functional filtering unit of the kidney. Each kidney contains millions of
nephrons. Each nephron contains two main parts, one is the glomerulus which performs
filtration, and other a tubule which reabsorbs and returns needed substances to blood and
removes wastes.

• As blood flows into each nephron, it enters a cluster of tiny blood vessels called glomerulus
with high pressure.
• At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the plasma and
dissolved substances to filter out and enter a structure called Bowman's capsule.
• In Bowman's capsule, along with waste, other essential small molecules like electrolytes, and
water are also removed and passed on to tubule. which are the main filtering units of the
kidneys.
• Only larger molecules, such as proteins and blood cells, stay in the blood vessel. Thus blood is
filtered by the tiny blood vessels of the glomeruli and then flows out of the kidney through the
renal vein.
• As the filtrate moves through the tubule, water and essential electrolytes, such as sodium,
potassium, and calcium, glucose amino acid are re-absorbed back. These essential small
molecules are passed into the bloodstream through blood vessel maintain proper hydration and
electrolyte levels in the body.
• At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine, back
into the filtrate.
• Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and
ureters to the bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the body.
• At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine, back
into the filtrate.
• Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and
ureters to the bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the body.

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