Module-IV

ECHOLOCATION
Echolocation is a biological or technological process that involves emitting sound waves and
listening to the echoes that bounce back off of objects in the environment to determine their location,
distance, and shape.
Echo-location is a biological phenomenon used by some animals. Echolocation occurs when an animal
emits a sound wave,that hit objects in the surroundings, bounces off and returning an echo that provides
information about the object’s distance and size.
By analyzing the echoes, animals can determine the location, distance, shape, and even movement of
objects. It is considered as BIO- SONAR system.
Over a thousand animal and bird species mainly bats, dolphins, and whales, are well-known for their
ability to use echo-location. These animals emit high-frequency sounds, and listen for the returning
echoes. They have specialized anatomical structures, for sending sounds and listening to echo sound.
By analyzing the time it takes for the echoes to return and the changes in frequency or intensity, the
animal can create a mental map of its environment. This allows them to navigate, find prey, avoid
obstacles, and even communicate with other members of their species.
Principle of Ecolocation :
Both biological and technological echolocation rely on the same basic principles and have the same
underlying purpose: to determine the location, distance, and shape of objects in the environment using
sound waves and their echoes.
The principle of echolocation is based on the emission of sound waves and the interpretation of the
echoes that bounce back from objects in the environment
Sound Emission: The echolocating organism, whether biological or technological, emits sound waves
into its surroundings.
Propagation of Sound Waves: The emitted sound waves travel through the environment, spreading
out in all directions.
Object Interaction: When the sound waves encounter objects in the environment(obstacles or prey,
they interact with these objects),interaction can involve reflection, scattering, or absorption of the
sound waves.
Echo Reception: Some of the sound waves that interact with objects bounce back or echo off them.
These echoes carry information about the objects' distance, shape, composition, and other
characteristics.
Sensory Reception: In biological echolocation, this is typically specialized organs or structures, such
as bat ears or dolphin melon, while in technological echolocation, it is achieved through sensors and
receivers.
Echo Interpretation: The information contained in the echoes is analyzed and interpreted by the
organism or technology. This interpretation involves extracting relevant features from the echoes and
making sense of the spatial and temporal patterns present.

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Perception and Response: Based on the interpretation of the echoes, the organism or technology can
perceive and understand the surrounding environment. This perception enables the organism to
navigate, locate objects, detect obstacles, or perform other relevant tasks.

Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique in which high-frequency sound waves are used to
create images of the internal structures of the body. Ultrasonography is a technology developed by
human beings for medical diagnostic purposes. It is also known as ultrasound imaging or sonography.
Ultrasonography is inspired by the natural phenomenon of echo-location. It is similar to echo-location
in terms of transmission and reception of sound waves. But, both are used in completely different
contexts and for different purposes.
In this technique, an ultrasound transducer is used to send high-frequency sound waves into the body.
Sound waves of high frequency in the range of 2 to 18 megahertz are transmitted through the skin and
tissues.
When these waves encounter boundaries between different tissues or organs, they reflect back as
echoes. The strength of the echoes depends on the acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as
density and stiffness.
The transducer also acts as a receiver, picking up the echoes as they return. Sends the information to a
computer, which processes the data to create images.
The echoes are then processed by a computer to create real-time images of the internal structures being
examined. The resulting images can be interpreted by a trained healthcare professional.
• It is commonly used for diagnostic purposes to evaluate conditions such as pregnancy,
gallstones, tumors, cysts, organ abnormalities, and vascular conditions
• In this technique, images are generated instantaneously in real-time. It can be used for dynamic
observations such as the movement of blood flow and the beating of the heart.
• It is a non-invasive and safe imaging method widely used in medical diagnostics. It does not use
any dangerous ionizing radiation. It is also portable and cost effective.
• Ultrasonography is similar to echo-location in terms of transmission and reception of sound
waves. But, both are used in completely different contexts and for different purposes.
Sonars
Stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a technology that uses sound waves to detect and locate
underwater objects. It operates on the principle of echolocation, similar to how certain animals like
dolphins and bats use sound for navigation.
Working Principle of Sonars is based on the reflection of sound waves.
A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a series of sound pulses into the water.
These sound pulses are typically in the form of highfrequency, low-power acoustic signals, known as
"ping."

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The sound pulses propagate through the water, traveling to the target object and bouncing back as
echoes. The speed of sound in water is slower than in air, and it depends on the temperature, pressure,
and salinity of the water.
The sonar system receiver that listens for the returning echoes. The receiver and transmitter are placed
away to minimize interference from the transmitted signals.
The time it takes for the echoes to return to the receiver is used to calculate the range to the target
object. The range is simply the product of the speed of sound in water and the time it takes for the
echoes to return.
The frequency and pattern of the echoes are used to determine the properties of the target object, such
as its size, shape, and composition. For example, a large, solid object will produce a strong, low-
frequency echo, while a small, porous object will produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.
The results of the sonar measurement are typically displayed on a screen or other output device,
allowing the operator to visualize the target object and its location.
There are mainly two types of sonar systems:
Active Sonar: In this type of sonar, the sound waves are emitted by the sonar system itself. The system
emits pulses of sound and listens for the returning echoes.
The sonar system actively generates sound and measures the time it takes for the sound waves to return
after bouncing off objects. By analyzing the time delay, the system calculates the distance to the object.
This type of sonar provides real-time information and is commonly used for navigation, detecting
underwater hazards, and locating underwater objects.
Passive Sonar: Passive sonar systems do not emit sound waves. They just listen for sounds generated
by other sources, such as marine animals, machinery, or other vessels.
Passive sonar systems rely on sensitive underwater microphones, called hydrophones, to detect and
analyze the sounds in the surrounding environment. These sounds can include engine noise, propeller
cavitation, and marine animal vocalizations.
Passive sonar is used for detecting and tracking underwater objects without emitting signals that might
reveal the presence of the sonar system.
Application:
Military and Defense: Sonar systems are critical for naval operations, helping detect submarines,
underwater mines, and aiding in anti-submarine warfare.
Fisheries and Marine Research: Sonar is key for locating fish, studying marine life, and managing
fisheries.
Underwater Mapping and Exploration: It's used to map the seafloor, discover sunken vessels, and
study geological features.
Offshore Industry: Sonar is employed in offshore operations for inspecting underwater infrastructure,
including pipelines and platforms.
Environmental Studies: Sonar is used to study the seafloor, ocean currents, and marine life.

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Photosynthesis:-
Photosynthesis is a biological process by which green plants and certain other organisms (algae, and
some bacteria) transform energy form sun light into chemical energy stored in organic molecules.
In this process, plants take up sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the
form of glucose.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction and occurs in the presence of sunlight.
The Process of Photosynthesis in Plants - the basic principle of converting light energy into usable
forms of energy is the same in both.
In plants, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of the cells located in the leaves.
The process starts with the absorption of light energy by pigments such as chlorophyll, which then
excites electrons.
These excited electrons are used to power the transfer of carbon dioxide into organic molecules, such as
sugars and starches, through a series of chemical reactions.
The end product of photosynthesis in plants is stored chemical energy in the form of organic
compounds.
Light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle) are
two interconnected processes that occur in the chloroplasts of plants and algae during photosynthesis.

Light-Dependent Reactions:
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts.
Water molecules (H2O) are split through a process called photolysis, releasing electrons, protons
(H+ ), and oxygen (O2).
↓
The excited electrons from photolysis are captured by electron carriers, such as NADP+
(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) and converted to NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate hydrogen).
↓
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) combines with inorganic phosphate (Pi) to form adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This process is known as phosphorylation and is a fundamental step in cellular
energy metabolism.
↓
Oxygen molecules (O2) generated from the splitting of water are released as a byproduct into the
atmosphere.

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Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle):
Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere enters the stroma of the chloroplasts.
↓
Carbon fixation occurs and forms a unstable six-carbon compound
↓
The resulting unstable six-carbon compound quickly breaks down into two molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate (PGA).
↓
ATP and NADPH, produced during the light-dependent reactions, provide energy and electrons for
the reduction of PGA to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
↓
Some G3P molecules are used to produce glucose and other organic molecules.
↓
The remaining G3P molecules are recycled and used in subsequent cycles of the Calvin cycle.
↓
Glucose and other carbohydrates produced during the Calvin cycle can be stored for later use or
utilized in metabolic processes to meet the energy and growth needs of the plant.
Overall, the process of photosynthesis is a critical aspect of life on Earth and provides the primary
source of energy for all living organisms. While the specific details of the process may differ between
plants, algae, and some animals, the basic principle of converting light energy into usable forms of
energy remains the same.

Photovoltaic Cells / solar cells:

• The connection between photosynthesis and photovoltaics lies in the conversion of light energy
into usable forms of energy.
• In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy stored in
organic molecules, such as sugars and starches.
• In photovoltaics, light energy is converted into electrical energy.
• Both photosynthesis and photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting light energy
into usable forms of energy, but the end products are different.
• In photosynthesis, the end product is stored chemical energy, while in photovoltaics, the end
product is electrical energy.
• Both processes also involve the use of specialized components and materials, such as
chlorophyll in photosynthesis and silicon in photovoltaics, to absorb and convert light energy
into usable forms of energy.
Bionic Leaf :
A bionic leaf is a system that uses artificial photosynthesis to convert sunlight into usable forms of
energy, such as hydrogen or other biofuels.

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 • The bionic leaf is designed to mimic the process of photosynthesis in plants, where light energy
is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, and the hydrogen can then be used
as a source of energy.
• The bionic leaf consists of a photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it into
electrical energy, and a catalyst, such as a bacteria, that uses the electrical energy to split water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of energy for
a variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.
• The bionic leaf has the potential to be a highly sustainable and environmentally friendly energy
source, as it uses renewable resources, such as sunlight and water, to produce energy.
• Additionally, the bionic leaf can be used in remote locations where there is limited access to
electricity, and it can help to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the effects of
climate change.
Working principle: The working principle of a bionic leaf is based on artificial photosynthesis, which
aims to mimic the process of photosynthesis in plants.

• The bionic leaf typically consists of a photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it
into electrical energy, and a catalyst, such as a bacterium, that uses the electrical energy to
split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The photovoltaic cell is used to convert sunlight into electrical energy, which is then passed to
the catalyst.
• The catalyst, in turn, uses the electrical energy to power the process of water splitting, where
water molecules are separated into hydrogen and oxygen.
• This process is facilitated by the presence of enzymes or other catalysts that act as a bridge
between the electrical energy and the water splitting reaction.
• The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of energy for
a variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.
• The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or a supplied source. The
Absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon-based compounds such as formic acid
or methene, through a redirection reaction.

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 • Additionally, the oxygen produced by the bionic leaf can be released into the atmosphere,
where it can help to mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the levels of atmospheric
carbon dioxide
A flow chart of the working principle of bionic leaf is given below:

Sunlight is captured and directed to the bionic leaf

↓
The bionic leaf contains a catalyst (typically a special type of bacteria or an artificial catalyst) and a
water-splitting enzyme.
↓
Sunlight energy is used to split water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+ ) and oxygen (O2)
through a process called photolysis.
↓
The hydrogen ions (H+ ) generated from water splitting combine with electrons from an external
source (e.g., a wire) to form hydrogen gas (H2).
↓
The oxygen gas (O2) produced during water splitting is released into the atmosphere.
↓
The generated hydrogen gas (H2) can be collected and stored for later use as a clean and renewable
energy source.
↓
The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or a supplied source.
↓
The absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon-based compounds, such as formic acid
or methane, through a reduction reaction.
↓
The carbon-based compounds can be used as a fuel or converted into other useful chemicals.
↓
The bionic leaf operates in a closed-loop system, where the produced oxygen (O2) during water
splitting is reused by the catalyst in subsequent cycles.
Applications of Bionic Leaf Technology :
Renewable Energy Production: Bionic leaf systems can harness solar energy and convert it into
chemical energy in the form of hydrogen gas or other carbon-based fuels. These fuels can be used as
clean energy sources for various applications, including transportation, electricity generation, and
heating.
Carbon Dioxide Reduction: By capturing and utilizing carbon dioxide as a feedstock, bionic leaf
systems can potentially help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. This
application holds significant potential for carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies.

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Sustainable Chemical Production: By utilizing carbon dioxide and renewable energy, these systems
can produce a wide range of valuable chemicals, such as fertilizers, plastics, and pharmaceuticals.
Agriculture and Food Production: By utilizing sunlight and carbon dioxide, bionic leaf systems can
generate oxygen and energy-rich compounds that can enhance plant growth and improve crop yields.
Remote and Off-Grid Areas: By harnessing solar energy and producing clean fuels, these systems can
offer sustainable power sources for communities without access to conventional energy infrastructure,
enabling them to meet their energy needs and improve their quality of life.
Environmental Remediation: By utilizing the energy generated from sunlight, bionic leaf systems can
power processes that remove pollutants or contaminants from air, water, or soil, contributing to the
restoration and preservation of ecosystems.
Bird flying:-
Bird flight is defined as the mode of locomotion used by birds while taking off and flying. This is one
of the most complex forms of locomotion in the animal kingdom. Flight helps birds in breeding,
feeding and avoiding predators and during migration.
Bird flight is a complex form of loco-motion. It involves different types of motions like taking off,
sustain lift, control their flight path, and adapt to different flight conditions and landing.
The basic mechanics of bird flight can be understood by considering combination of aerodynamic
principles, wing movements and functions of different body parts. The basic mechanics of bird flight is
briefly described below:
• Bird flight begins with takeoff. Birds use their legs to push off the ground, generating an initial
upward force. The primary muscles involved in take off are the leg muscles.
• After taking off, they flap their wings rapidly to generate lift and thrust. The wings have a
curved shape known as an airfoil. This curved surface is responsible for creating a pressure
difference between the upper and lower wing surfaces. The upward (up-stroke) and downward
(down-stroke) movements of wings generates lift.
• During the down-stroke, the wings move downward and forward. As the wings move
downward, air is pushed downward. This creates an equal and opposite upward force (lift)
against the gravity. This upward force is responsible for generation of lift by birds.
• As the bird completes the down-stroke, it starts the upstroke. During the upstroke, the wings
move upward and backward. This motion reduces drag and allows the bird to reset its wings for
the next down-stroke. The upstroke also contributes to lift and thrust by redirecting air currents
smoothly over the wings.
• During flight, birds can change the angle of their wings, creating different amounts of lift.
• Thrust is produced by the flapping motion of the wings. This thrust is responsible for propelling
the bird forward. Birds have different flapping frequencies depending on their size, and species.
Smaller birds generally have higher wing flapping frequencies and move quickly. While larger
birds have slower wing flapping frequencies that provide greater lift and stability.

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 • The tail plays a crucial role in flight control. Birds use their tail feathers to adjust their balance,
stability, and direction. By tilting or spreading their tail feathers, birds can make quick turns or
maintain a straight flight path.
Some birds, such as raptors and seabirds, can soar and glide for extended periods without flapping
their wings constantly. Soaring involves flying without flapping their wings. Gliding refers to
flying with extended wings. They make use of rising air currents. By adjusting their wings and
body posture, they can effectively ride these air currents and maintain flight with minimal energy
expenditure. Soaring and gliding allow birds to cover long distances, conserve energy during
migration, and search for food efficiently.
Birds possess a few unique aerodynamic and anatomical features which are mainly responsible for their
ability to fly like Streamlined body shapes, Specialized curved wings, Sleek feathers, Powerful flight
muscles, Lightweight skeletons, Tail, energy and metabolism, respiratory system, circulatory system
etc., The ability of bird to fly is due to combination of aerodynamic principles, and different specialized
body parts. A complex involvement of forces, muscle coordination, and adaptations allow the birds to
navigate the skies with grace and precision.
Bio Mimicking Birds Fly and Aircraft:
Airplanes and birds' flight mechanisms are fundamentally different, the observation and study of bird
flight has provided valuable insights and inspiration for improving aircraft performance and efficiency.
Since humans first aspired to fly, they have observed birds' flight and sought to replicate their abilities
in the development of aircraft. Several aspects of bird flight have influenced the design of airplanes and
other flying machines.
Aircraft design has been inspired by bird flying mechanisms:
1. Birds have wings with camber. Camber is a curve in the wing, which helps to generate lift. Camber
similar to bird is used in the design of aircraft wings.
2. Birds have vortex generators on their wings which help to improve airflow over the wing. Similar
vortex generators are used in the design of aircraft wings.
3. Ailerons are control surfaces that are located on the trailing edge of the wing. Ailerons are used in
aircraft design to control their roll.
4. Birds move their tails to control their yaw. In aircrafts, rudders are used to control the yaw of the
aircraft.
5. The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for aircraft, with shock-absorbing
and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon landing
Airplane wings are shaped to make air move faster over the top of the wing. When the air moves faster,
the pressure of the air decreases. So the pressure on the top of the wing is less than the pressure on the
bottom of the wing. The difference in pressure creates a force on the wing that lifts the wing up into the
air.
An aircraft in straight and level flight is acted upon by four forces: lift, gravity, thrust and drag. The
opposing forces balance each other: Lift equals gravity, and thrust equals drag
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Thrust: The force that moves an airplane forward through the air. Thrust is created by a propeller or a
jet engine.
Drag: The air resistance that tends to slow the forward movement of an airplane.
Gravity: The force that pulls all objects towards the earth.
Lift: The upward force that is created by the movement of air above and below a wing. Air flows faster
above the wing and slower below the wing, creating a difference in pressure that tends to keep an
airplane flying.
Navigation of Birds:
Birds exhibit remarkable navigational skills. They travel thousands of miles annually to find food,
mates, and breeding grounds and find their way back to specific place. They do not use any technology
like GPS to navigate. Instead, they use variety of biological cues to navigate. Some of the cues used by
birds for navigation are:
1. Birds use the position of sun in the sky as a reference point to determine their direction of travel
during the day time.
2. They use the position of stars as landmark to navigate during night.
3. Birds have specialized organs called "magneto-receptors". They can sense the Earth's magnetic field.
This helps them determine their latitude and longitude and aids in long-distance navigation
Global positioning system (GPS) :
A global positioning system (GPS) is a network of satellites and receiving devices used to determine
the location and time anywhere on the Earth or near the Earth's surface. Some GPS receivers are so
accurate they can establish their location within 1 centimeter
The technology works by measuring the time it takes for signals to travel from satellites to a receiver
on the ground or in a vehicle, and using this information to calculate the user's position.
Birds can also use landmarks, such as coastlines, rivers, and mountains, to navigate. The navigation
techniques of birds are still not fully understood. Scientists could learn from birds' navigation abilities
in order to improve the GPS technology which is being used presently for navigation. Birds are able to
use the Earth's magnetic field to navigate even when there are no other cues available. This suggests
that there is some potential for scientists to learn from birds in order to improve GPS technology.
Key components of GPS technology:
• Satellites: consists of 24-32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These satellites continuously broadcast
signals containing information about their location, time, and status.
• Receivers: which are typically integrated into devices such as smartphones, navigation systems, and
aircraft, receive signals from GPS satellites and use the information to calculate the user's position.
• Control segment: The control segment consists of ground-based monitoring stations that track the
GPS satellites, check the accuracy of their signals, and make adjustments as needed.
• User segment: The user segment consists of the GPS receivers used by individuals and
organizations to obtain location and time information.

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GPS technology play an important role in aircraft for positioning and navigation, flight planning,
approach landing, traffic management, collision avoidance and flight data recording.
GPS technology has revolutionized aircraft navigation and has become an integral part of modern
aviation. It provides accurate positioning, enhances safety, improves operational efficiency, and
contributes to the overall advancement of the aviation industry.
Lotus leaf effect:
The lotus leaves have unique rough and water-repellent surface. Water falling on its surface just rolls
off taking dirt and other contaminants with it. Thus, the surface of lotus leaf is naturally cleaned
without manual intervention or using any external cleaning agents.
Self-cleaning, super-hydrophobic nature of lotus leaves has led to the development of new concept
called as ‘Lotus effect’. This effect is attributed to the surface microstructure of lotus leaves, which
consists of numerous tiny wax-covered bumps that minimize contact between water droplets and the
leaf's surface. As a result, water droplets bead up, roll off, and carry away dirt and debris, leaving the
leaf clean free of pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.
The super-hydrophobic, self-cleaning nature of lotus leaf is attributed to the following structural
features:
• Lotus leaf has combination of micro-and nano-structures with optimized Geometry. It has tiny
bumps and ridges that are about 10-20 micrometres in size. These bumps and ridges create a
rough surface that traps air. This layer of air prevents the water droplet from fully wetting the
leaf surface, and it also makes it difficult for the water droplet to adhere to the leaf surface.
• The whole surface of lotus leaf is covered with short wax tubules. These wax tubules are made
of non-polar, hydrophobic, hydrocarbon molecules. These are accumulated in clusters with high
density on the surface.
• Due to these structural features, lotus leaf exhibits very low surface energy.
• When water comes in contact with its surface, it forms high contact angle of 162 °. The
hydrophobicity of a surface can be measured by its contact angle. Higher the contact angle,
higher is the hydrophobicity of a surface. Surfaces with a contact angle < 90° are referred to as
hydrophilic and those with an angle >90° are referred to as hydrophobic. Lotus leaf forms
contact angle of 162° and is considered as ultra-hydrophobic.
• With this contact angle, only 0.6% of the surface of a water droplet is in contact with surface of
the leaf.
• Thus, the contact between surface of lotus leaf with water, dirt or any other contaminant is very
less. Hence, when water falls on the surface of lotus leaf, it automatically rolls off the surface,
taking dirt and contaminants with it.
• This effect has inspired the material scientists to develop the new materials and coatings which
exhibit super hydrophobic (water-repellent) and self-cleaning surface properties.
Few examples for the materials used in super hydrophobic, self-cleaning surfaces are Fluorinated
polymers such as perfluoroalkyl polymers or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Organo-silane
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 compounds, a few nanostructured materials like silica nanoparticles, Titanium dioxide
nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes , Acrylic resins, cat-ionic and an-ionic surfactants, solvents and
binders.
By mimicking the lotus leaf's microstructure, researchers have created surfaces that can repel water,
resist icing, and prevent contamination. These biomimic materials have found applications in industries
such as textiles, construction, and healthcare, offering benefits like improved water resistance, reduced
maintenance, and enhanced durability.
Applications:-
Self-Cleaning Surfaces: Super hydrophobic coatings are used on architectural surfaces, such as glass
and concrete, as well as textiles to create self-cleaning materials that repel water and dirt. This is
particularly valuable for building maintenance and outdoor clothing.
Anti-Icing Coatings: The Lotus Leaf Effect is employed to design anti-icing coatings for aircraft,
wind turbine blades, and power lines. These coatings prevent the accumulation of ice, reducing energy
consumption and enhancing safety
Biomedical Devices: Microfluidic devices and Lab-on-a-Chip Devices with superhydrophobic
channels are used in medical diagnostics and chemical analysis. These devices enable precise control
of fluid movement and prevent cross-contamination.
Anti-Stain Fabrics: Fabrics treated with super hydrophobic coatings are highly stain-resistant. They
repel liquids, including beverages and oils, preventing stains and improving the longevity of clothing
and upholstery.
Anti-Fogging Surfaces: Super hydrophobic coatings are employed on eyeglasses, camera lenses, and
car windshields to reduce fogging. By repelling water droplets, these coatings maintain visibility in
humid or rainy conditions.
Oil-Water Separation: Super hydrophobic materials are used in oil spill clean up and waste water
treatment to efficiently separate oil from water, as they repel water while allowing oil to adhere.

Plant burrs:
• Plant burrs, such as those found on burdock, inspired the invention of Velcro, a popular hook-and-
loop fastening system. The burrs have small hooks that can latch onto clothing, fur, or feathers,
allowing them to disperse their seeds over a wider area.
• Velcro was invented by Swiss engineer George De Mestral in 1941, after he became fascinated by
the way burrs clung to his clothes and his dog's fur during a walk. He examined the burrs under a
microscope and found that they had small hooks that could latch onto loops in fabric.
• De Mestral spent years experimenting with different materials before finally developing Velcro,
which consists of two strips of nylon fabric, one with tiny hooks and the other with small loops.
When pressed together, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a strong bond that can be easily
detached by pulling the two strips apart.

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• The name "Velcro" is actually a combination of the words "velvet" and "crochet," as the fabric strips
resemble velvet and are hooked together like crochet. Velcro has since become a popular alternative
to traditional fasteners, such as buttons and zippers, due to its ease of use and versatility.
Materials Used in Velcro Technology
Velcro technology uses two main materials: nylon and polyester.
1. The nylon is extruded to create tiny hooks that are then cut and shaped into the familiar hook
shape. These hooks are designed to latch onto the loop side of the Velcro.
2. The loop side of Velcro is made of polyester. Polyester is a synthetic fabric that is strong and
durable. The polyester is woven into a fabric that has many tiny loops. When the loops are
pressed against the hook side of the Velcro, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a secure
attachment In addition to nylon and polyester, the adhesive used to attach the Velcro to surfaces
can also vary.
3. Some types of Velcro use a pressure-sensitive adhesive that can be easily removed without
leaving a residue, while others use a stronger adhesive that creates a more permanent bond.

Engineering Applications of Velcro Technology

Clothing and footwear: for closures and adjustable straps. It can be easily opened and closed, making
it convenient for users with limited dexterity or mobility.
Medical devices: such as braces, splints, and compression garments for its adjustable and secure
fastening capabilities.
Aerospace equipment: such as satellites and spacecraft, to secure components in place and prevent
them from vibrating or shifting during launch or flight.
Automotive industry: for a range of applications, such as securing carpets and headliners, and
attaching door panels and seat cushions.
Packaging industry: for resealable closures on bags, pouches, and other types of packaging.
Sports equipment: such as helmets and gloves, for its ability to provide a secure and adjustable fit.

Shark skin:
• The surface of the shark skin is covered with small, tooth-like scales referred to as"denticles." The
denticles have a riblet-like structure, resembling tiny V-shaped ridges. These ridges are aligned in
the direction from the shark's head to tail. The denticles overlap with each other, creating a
"chainmail-like" armor on the shark's skin. The denticles tend to become smaller in size as they
move from the head of the shark's body to its tail.
• The skin of shark is naturally designed to maximize its swimming efficiency. The overlapping
arrangement of denticles and the rough surface of shark skin helps reduce drag and minimizing
turbulence as water flows over the skin. The denticles create a low-pressure zone, called a leading-
edge vortex, as the water moves over the skin. This low-pressure area increases thrust and reduces
drag. The gradual reduction in size of denticles optimizes hydrodynamics and allows smoother
transition of water flow over the shark's body.

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• Due to systematic arrangement of denticles, the body of the shark is more streamlined. Due to this,
shark can make quick turns and changes in its directions. The presence of denticles also contributes
to reduce noise generated by water flow over the skin and hence shark can swim silently. Apart from
their hydrodynamic advantages, denticles also provide some level of protection to the shark's skin
from injuries.

Friction reducing swim suits:-

• Shark skin, also known as friction-reducing swimwear, is inspired by the texture of shark skin to
create swimsuits that reduce drag in the water. These swimsuits are designed to mimic the
hydrodynamic properties of shark skin, helping swimmers glide through the water with reduced
resistance, potentially improving their performance.
• These suits are engineered to emulate the natural design of shark skin, typically made from synthetic
materials such as nylon, lycra/ spandex and elastane. These fabrics are designed to be lightweight,
water-repellent, and hydrodynamic, and often incorporate materials such as silicone or Teflon to
reduce drag. The swimsuit was made of a fabric with tiny ridges that were arranged in the same way
as shark denticles.
• When a swimmer wears these friction-reducing swim suits, the textured surface of the suit disrupts
the flow of water over the body in much the same way as shark skin does. This disruption reduces
the frictional drag that typically occurs when water passes over a swimmer's body.
Examples
1. Speedo Fastskin: This swim suit was designed based on the structure of shark skin and is made
from a high-tech fabric that incorporates a range of materials to reduce drag and turbulence in the
water.
2. Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra: the Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra is made from a combination
of polyurethane and high-tech fabrics to provide a hydrodynamic and form-fitting design.
3. TYR Venzo: that incorporates a unique surface structure inspired by shark skin, as well as other
advanced materials to improve swimmer performance.
Kingfisher beak:
The kingfisher beak is an excellent example of nature's design for efficient diving and fishing.
• Its unique shape and structure enable the kingfisher to minimize the impact of water resistance and
achieve a successful dive.
• The kingfishers have long, dagger-like bills. The bill is usually longer, and more compressed in
species that hunt fish.
• A kingfisher has special glare-reducing cells in its eyes so that it can detect fish in water from long
distance. It approaches the water surface at a speed of over 36feet (eleven meters) per second, and
dives in to water without making a splash and manages to grab a fish in its beak before the fish
detects it and flees.

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• This ability of kingfisher to approach fish without generating any detectable waves in water is
attributed to the shape of the kingfisher beak and head.
• The kingfisher has a long, pointed and cone-shaped beaks and heads. The diameter of the beak
steadily increases from the tip to the head. The tip point of the conical beak has a little surface area
and offers no resistance to the water upon entry. Thus, kingfisher enters in to water without making
any noisy splash above water and also without creating a compression wave below the surface of the
water.
• The evenly and gradually enlarging cross-section of the beak keeps fluid flowing smoothly around it
as it penetrates further into the water column. This gives the kingfisher bird, crucial milliseconds to
reach the fish before the fish can detect it and flee.
• The length and shape of the beak are the critical factors. The longer the beak with more gradually
expansion of the angle of the wedge then the resistance produced will be lesser.

Bullet train:-
This kingfisher beak inspired a bullet train.
• When Shinkansen bullet trains (in Japan) were first introduced, they encountered a noise problem
due to their high speeds of 240-320 km/hr, generating loud sounds audible up to 400 meters away
and creating disruptive "tunnel booms" when exiting tunnels.
• This was due to build up atmospheric pressure waves in front of the train due to air resistance.
Therefore, to function effectively without creating so much noise, the Shinkansen trains needed a
structural redesign. They needed a new design that would prevent abrupt changes in air resistance
around them.
• Engineers found inspiration in the kingfisher's beak, renowned for its design efficiency in
minimizing air resistance. The beak's long, pointed, and streamlined shape, with a minimal surface
area at its tip, enables the kingfisher to enter the water without creating a noisy splash or
compression wave.
• The aerodynamic principles that make the kingfisher's beak efficient in minimizing water
resistance have been adapted to the design of the front of high-speed bullet trains.
• The geometry of the front part of the bullet train was redesigned the Shinkansen trains with a
streamlined front-end shape inspired by the Kingfisher bird's beak.
• The redesigned trains became quieter and more efficient due to decreased air resistance. The
problem of higher noise and tunnel boom were resolved. And also, the redesigned trains required
15% less electrical energy while traveling 10% faster than before.

Human Blood substitutes:

Human blood substitutes are also known as artificial blood. That is used as substitute for blood or blood
components. They are developed to use in situations where there is a shortage of blood or where the
patient's blood is incompatible with donor’s blood.

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Basic Requirement for Human Blood Substitutes
1. Effective Oxygen Transport: Human blood substitutes must be capable of efficiently carrying
and delivering oxygen to the body's tissues.
2. Safety and Compatibility: Blood substitutes should be safe for use in the human body and
well-tolerated by the recipient. They should not cause significant adverse reactions, toxicity, or
immune responses. Additionally, they should not interfere with normal blood clotting or other
essential physiological processes.
3. Storage and Transport: Human blood substitutes should be stable and capable of being stored
and transported easily.
4. Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability: Blood substitutes should be cost-effective and scalable for
widespread use in medical settings. They should be affordable and feasible to produce in large
quantities, meeting the potential demand for blood products.

There are two main types of human blood substitutes:

Fluid substitutes: These are substances used to replace the fluid or plasma volume of blood. They
are also called as volume expanders. Saline solution or a combination of saline solution with other
substances, such as gelatin or starch or albumin is commonly used as fluid substitute.
Oxygen carrier substitutes: These are substances used to replace oxygen carrying component of
the blood. Hemoglobin present in red blood cells is the protein that carries oxygen in blood. Iron
present in hemoglobin molecule has a high affinity for oxygen. It readily picks up oxygen from
lungs and transports it to different parts of the body. On the way back, it picks up carbon dioxide
from different parts of the body and releases it back to lungs. The Oxygen carrier substitutes used in
synthetic blood are designed to mimic the oxygen carrying ability of hemoglobin.

There are two main Oxygen carrier substitutes used in the human blood substitutes:
a) Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs)
b) Perflourocarbons (PFCs).
Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) :-
• Oxygen therapeutics include agents called hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs), which are
made by genetically or chemically engineering hemoglobin isolated from the red blood cells of
humans or bovines and formulating it into a solution or suspension that can be infused into a
patient's bloodstream.
• These dark red or burgundy colored blood substitutes are often made also from RBCs of expired
human blood, cow blood, hemoglobin- producing genetically modified bacteria, or human placentas
• HBOCs are semi-synthetic systems that utilize natural Hb as the oxygen-carrying component, either
in chemically modified cell-free suspensions or conjugated and cross-linked with polymers along
with protective enzymes, or encapsulated within microparticulate or nanoparticulate vehicles.
• Through a chemical process- polymerization, two or three molecules bonded together to form a
larger HBOC molecule but HBOCs are smaller than natural RBCs.
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• In the case of outdated human or bovine RBCs, the Hb is isolated via cell lysis, purified by sterile
filtration and chromatographic techniques and sterilized.
• HBOCs do not require refrigeration, are compatible with all blood types, and efficiently distribute
oxygen to tissues Using cell-free (acellular) Hb presents the advantage of minimum
antigenicity and the ability to off-load oxygen in plasma, more efficiently because of the lack of
interference by cell membrane.
HBOCs have several advantages compared to natural blood:
• Increased oxygen-carrying capacity: HBOCs can potentially carry more oxygen per unit volume
than whole blood. - where there is a need for rapid oxygen delivery or when there is limited
availability of blood for transfusion.
• Universal compatibility:In case of real blood, there are several blood groups. HBOCs are suitable
for patients of all blood types and also there is no problem of cross-matching.
• Longer shelf life : HBOCs can have a longer shelf life, making them more readily available when
needed.
• Reduced risk of infections:HBOCs can be manufactured and sterilized to eliminate the risk of
transmitting infectious diseases.
There are many problems associated with HBOCs:-
• Limited oxygen release: The oxygen dissociation curve of HBOCs may differ from that of natural
red blood cells, potentially leading to inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues in certain conditions.
• Immune related reactions: HBOCs can trigger immune responses in the body, potentially leading
to allergic reactions or other adverse events.
• Some HBOCs have been associated with side effects like high blood pressure, kidney damage, and
interference with the body's own natural blood regulation.
• HBOCs typically have a shorter circulation time in the body compared to natural red blood cells.
So more frequent doses or infusions
• Nitric oxide scavenging: HBOCs have a tendency to scavenge nitric oxide, a molecule important
for regulating blood vessel dilation and maintaining normal blood flow. Excessive nitric oxide
scavenging by HBOCs may causing adverse cardiovascular effects.

Perflourocarbons (PFCs):
PFCs are synthetic artificial blood products derived from fluorine- and carbon- containing chemicals.
These compounds can be infused to human blood as oxygen carriers. They are chemically inert, but
more effective than water or blood plasma in dissolving and absorbing oxygen in the lungs and then
transporting oxygen throughout the body The mechanism of oxygen transport by PFCs involves the
following steps:

• PFCs in liquid solution form are infused directly into the bloodstream.

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• Due to their high oxygen solubility, PFCs readily pick up oxygen from lungs. PFCs can dissolve
oxygen gas directly and carry it in the form of dissolved oxygen. PFCs do not bind oxygen like in
case of hemoglobin.
• The blood containing PFCs loaded with dissolved oxygen circulates through the body, similar to
natural blood. The PFCs act as oxygen carriers, delivering oxygen to tissues with low oxygen
tension.
• After delivering oxygen to tissues, picks up carbon dioxide, returns to the lungs through the veins
and release carbon dioxide during exhalation.
• They are again re-oxygenated and ready to carry oxygen.
• PFCs remain in the bloodstream for about 48 hours. Because of their oxygen- dissolving ability,
PFCs were the first group of artificial blood products studied by scientists. They are the first
generation blood substitutes.
• Unlike the red colored HBOCs, PFCs are usually white. However, since they do not mix with blood
they must be emulsified before they can be given to patients.

Few of the advantages of PFCs as oxygen carrier

• The carbon-fluorine bonds in PFCs create a structure with high oxygen solubility. This allows for
efficient oxygen delivery to tissues, even in low-oxygen environments.
• Chemically stable and inert molecules and hence, they are non-immunogenic.
• PFCs are chemically stable and have a long shelf life, making them suitable for storage and use in
emergency situations.
• Donated blood carries risk of transmission of infections from donor. Whereas, PFCs are synthetic
compounds and can be sterilized to eliminate the risk of transmitting infectious diseases.
• They have low boiling points. They are highly volatile and get evaporated quickly at room
temperature. Hence, they can be removed from the blood stream easily.
• Universal compatibility :In case of real blood, there are several blood groups. HBOCs are suitable
for patients of all blood types and also there is no problem of cross-matching.
However, there are few limitations and challenges with the use of PFC-based blood substitutes:
• They have shorter circulatory half-life compared to natural red blood cells. They get cleared from
the bloodstream more rapidly. Hence, they need to be transfused more frequently.
• PFCs are efficient oxygen carriers, but, they do not transport carbon dioxide as effectively as natural
blood. Carbon dioxide removal can be critical for maintaining physiological balance.
• PFCs have the potential for side effects and toxicity, particularly if used in excessive amounts or for
prolonged periods. Adverse effects can include respiratory distress, immune reactions, and potential
organ toxicity.

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