Module-IV

TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING
Muscular and Skeletal Systems
The musculoskeletal system (locomotor system) is a human body system that provides our body with
movement, stability, shape, and support. Besides its main function to provide the body with stability
and mobility, the musculoskeletal system has many other functions; the skeletal part plays an important
role in other homeostatic functions such as storage of minerals (e.g., calcium) and hematopoiesis, while
the muscular system stores most of the body's carbohydrates in the form of glycogen.
It is subdivided into two broad systems: Muscular system and Skeletal system
Muscular system:
This includes all types of muscles in the body. Skeletal muscles, in particular, are the ones that act on
the body joints to produce movements. Besides muscles, the muscular system contains the tendons
which attach the muscles to the bones.
The architecture of skeletal muscle is highly organized and designed for efficient contraction and
movement.
Muscle Fiber: The basic unit of skeletal muscle is
the muscle fiber, a long, multinucleated cell.
Fascicle: Muscle fibers are bundled together into
groups called fascicles, surrounded by a layer of
connective tissue known as perimysium.
Epimysium: The entire muscle is encased in a
tough connective tissue called the epimysium,
providing structural support.
Tendon: The epimysium extends to form tendons at the ends of the muscle, attaching it to bones for
movement.
Myofibrils: Muscle fibers contain myofibrils, which are composed of repeating contractile units called
sarcomeres.
Sarcomeres: Sarcomeres are the functional units of muscle contraction, consisting of overlapping thick
(myosin) and thin (actin) protein filaments.
Motor Units: Muscles are controlled by motor neurons that innervate specific muscle fibers, forming
motor units.
Blood supply: Skeletal muscles have a rich blood supply, ensuring oxygen and nutrient delivery and
waste removal.
Striated appearance: The arrangement of sarcomeres gives skeletal muscle its striated or striped
appearance.
This organized architecture enables precise and coordinated muscle contractions, allowing for a wide
range of movements and functions in the human body.

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Skeletal system:
Whose main component is the bone. Bones articulate with each other and form the joints, providing our
bodies with a hard-core, yet mobile, skeleton. Its primary functions include providing structural
support, protecting vital organs, facilitating movement, and serving as a reservoir for minerals like
calcium and phosphorus.
The skeletal system is the body's architectural framework, consisting of bones, joints, and connective
tissues. Bones are the central component, and there are over 200 in the adult human body, each with a
specific shape and function. They can be categorized as long bones (e.g., femur), short bones (e.g.,
wrist), flat bones (e.g., skull), and irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae).
Joints, the connections between bones, enable movement and come in various types, such as hinge
joints (elbows), ball-and-socket joints (hips), and pivot joints (neck).
Connective tissues, including cartilage, ligaments, and tendons, play crucial roles. Cartilage cushions
joints, ligaments connect bone to bone, and tendons attach muscle to bone, transmitting forces for
movement.
This architectural design allows for a wide range of movements while maintaining stability and
protection, making the skeletal system fundamental to human anatomy and function.

Muscular System as a Scaffold

The muscular system, comprising over 600 skeletal muscles alongside smooth and cardiac muscles,
serves as a dynamic scaffold, complementing the skeletal system’s rigid framework. It provides
dynamic support, facilitates movement, and maintains tension and elasticity, ensuring stability and
functionality.
Dynamic Support: Skeletal muscles stabilize joints and maintain posture by contracting against the
skeleton. Core muscles, such as the transversus abdominis and erector spinae, support the spine,
preventing collapse during activities like standing or lifting. For instance, the multifidus muscles
stabilize vertebrae, reducing strain. Muscles also dynamically adjust to maintain balance, such as the
gluteus medius stabilizing the pelvis during walking. This active support contrasts with the skeleton’s
passive rigidity, making the muscular system a versatile scaffold.
Movement: Muscles generate force through contraction, pulling bones to produce motion. Skeletal
muscles, like the biceps brachii, flex the elbow by contracting and pulling the radius. Agonist-
antagonist pairs (e.g., biceps and triceps) ensure smooth, controlled movements. Smooth muscles drive
internal functions, such as peristalsis in the digestive tract, while cardiac muscles sustain the heartbeat,
supporting circulation. This coordinated force generation enables both voluntary actions (e.g., running)
and involuntary processes (e.g., breathing).
Tension and Elasticity: Muscles act as active scaffolds by providing tension to counter external forces.
For example, the rotator cuff muscles stabilize the shoulder joint during heavy lifting, preventing
dislocation. Muscle elasticity, due to proteins like titin, allows flexibility, absorbing shock and
maintaining joint integrity under stress.

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The muscular system’s dynamic scaffold enhances the skeleton’s framework, ensuring posture,
mobility, and resilience through active stabilization and force generation.

Skeletal System as a Scaffold

The skeletal system, with 206 bones in adults, acts as the body’s primary scaffold, providing structural
integrity and functional versatility.
Structure and Support: The skeleton forms a rigid framework that shapes the body and supports soft
tissues. The axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, ribcage) upholds the head and trunk, while the
appendicular skeleton (limbs, girdles) aids mobility. Long bones like the femur endure high mechanical
stress, supporting weight during activities like walking. The vertebral column, with 33 vertebrae,
distributes body weight, ensuring posture and stability.
Attachment Points: Bones serve as anchorage for muscles via tendons, facilitating movement through
leverage. Synovial joints, such as hinge (e.g., elbow) and ball-and-socket (e.g., hip), enable controlled
motions like flexion and rotation. For example, the quadriceps tendon pulls the tibia to extend the knee.
Ligaments, like the ACL, stabilize joints, ensuring precise movement.
Protection: The skeleton shields vital organs. The skull protects the brain, the ribcage guards the heart
and lungs, and the vertebrae encase the spinal cord, absorbing external impacts.
Mineral Storage and Blood Production: Bones store calcium and phosphorus, crucial for metabolic
functions. Red bone marrow in bones like the sternum produces blood cells, while yellow marrow
stores fat.
This dynamic scaffold integrates support, movement, and protection, adapting to physical demands.
Interdependence
The skeletal system provides a passive, rigid scaffold, while the muscular system adds dynamic,
flexible support. Together, they form a biomechanical unit: bones without muscles are immobile, and
muscles without bones lack leverage.
Ligaments and tendons reinforce this scaffold, connecting bones to bones and muscles to bones,
respectively.
Muscular Scaffolds tissue as Scaffolds in tissue engineering application
 Tissue engineering develops scaffolds that mimic the hierarchical structure of muscle fibers.
Biodegradable polymers and hydrogels with fibrous architecture promote cell attachment and
growth, resembling natural muscle tissue.
 Muscle-mimicking materials: Developed for prosthetics to replicate natural muscle properties.
This includes elasticity, tensile strength, and the ability to withstand repetitive contractions.
 Growth factors and signalling molecules: Promote tissue growth and healing.
 Stem cell therapy: Use of stem cells to regenerate damaged muscle and bone tissues.
 Skin tissue engineering: Development of skin substitutes for burn victims and chronic wound
patients. Engineered muscle tissues can repair or replace damaged muscle from trauma, surgery,
or degenerative diseases, greatly benefiting reconstructive surgery and regenerative medicine

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  Scaffolds that can facilitate the interaction between muscle cells and other cell types, such as
endothelial cells for blood vessel formation, are crucial for successful tissue regeneration.
 Muscle-mimicking scaffolds can be used in the development of implantable devices that require
mechanical support and integration with the host tissue, such as pacemakers and biohybrid
devices.
Skeletal tissue as Scaffolds in tissue engineering application
 Bone Tissue Engineering: Biomaterials such as calcium phosphate ceramics and bioactive
glasses are used to create scaffolds that mimic the mineral composition and structure of natural
bone. These scaffolds promote osteogenic (bone-forming) cell attachment, proliferation, and
differentiation.
 Osteoconductive Properties: The porous structure of bone scaffolds provides a favorable
environment for bone ingrowth and vascularization, essential for the regeneration of large bone
defects.
 Scaffolds in bone tissue engineering must integrate seamlessly with surrounding bone tissue to
restore mechanical stability and function. Surface modifications and bioactive coatings enhance
the scaffold's ability to bond with host bone tissue.
 Mimicking the mechanical properties of natural bone, such as stiffness and elasticity, ensures
that engineered scaffolds can withstand physiological loads and support long-term bone
regeneration.
 Biodegradable polymers and composite materials are used to develop scaffolds that degrade
over time as new bone tissue forms. This feature allows for the gradual replacement of the
scaffold with newly formed bone, promoting natural healing processes.
 Incorporating stem cells and growth factors into bone scaffolds enhances their regenerative
potential by stimulating osteogenesis and angiogenesis. These bioactive components support
tissue remodeling and integration with surrounding tissues.
 Engineered bone scaffolds are used in orthopedic surgeries to repair bone defects resulting from
trauma, congenital deformities, or disease. This application improves patient outcomes by
promoting faster healing and reducing the need for extensive bone grafting procedures.
 Scaffolds can be tailored for specific applications, such as dental implants or joint replacements,
where they provide structural support and facilitate osseointegration (bone bonding) with the
surrounding tissues.

Bioprinting Techniques and Materials

Bioprinting is a rapidly growing field that uses various techniques to produce three- dimensional (3D)
structures and functional biological tissues for medical and scientific applications. The main objective
of bioprinting is to mimic the structure and function of human tissues and organs, leading to the
development of replacement parts for damaged or diseased organs.

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Bioprinting Materials
Bioprinting materials, also known as bioinks, are specifically designed to be compatible with living
cells and provide a supportive environment for their growth and organization.
Hydrogels: Hydrogels are water-based polymer networks that closely mimic the extracellular matrix
(ECM) found in living tissues. They offer excellent biocompatibility, mechanical support, and can be
formulated to have similar physical properties to native tissues. Examples of hydrogels used as bioinks
include:
• Gelatin-based hydrogels, • Alginate hydrogels, • Collagen-based hydrogels, • Fibrin-based hydrogels
Cell-laden Aggregates:
In some cases, cells are first aggregated into biomolecules and biomaterials (or microtissues) before
being incorporated into the bioink. These aggregates provide a more physiological environment for the
cells and enhance their viability and functionality.
Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (dECM):
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network of molecules surrounding cells in tissues and
organs. It provides structural support, biochemical signaling, and regulatory functions.
The ECM of tissues can be extracted and processed to remove cellular components, resulting in a
decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM). dECM bioinks contain natural signaling molecules and
proteins that promote cell attachment, growth, and differentiation.
Examples of dECM bioinks include:
• Decellularized porcine small intestine submucosa (SIS)
• Decellularized porcine or bovine dermis
• Decellularized amniotic membrane
Synthetic Polymer-based Bioinks:
Synthetic polymers can be used to create bioinks with well-defined mechanical properties and
degradation rates. These bioinks provide control over various parameters, such as stiffness, porosity,
and degradation, to support specific tissue engineering goals. Examples of synthetic polymer-based
bioinks include:
• Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based bioinks
• Polycaprolactone (PCL)-based bioinks
• Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)- based bioinks
Composite Bioinks:
Composite bioinks combine different materials to enhance the bioink's properties, such as mechanical
strength, printability, and cell behavior. These bioinks often contain a combination of natural and
synthetic materials or a mixture of different biomaterials. Examples:
• Gelatin-methacryloyl (GelMA) combined with alginate
• Collagen combined with hyaluronic acid (HA)
• Fibrin combined with nanoparticles or growth factors

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Most Commonly used Bioprinting Techniques
Bioprinting techniques involve the precise deposition of bioinks to create three- dimensional structures
with living cells. Several techniques have been developed to accomplish this, each with its own
advantages and limitations
Inkjet-based Bioprinting:
Inkjet bioprinting works similarly to standard inkjet printing. The bioink is loaded into cartridges, and
droplets of the bioink are ejected through fine nozzles onto a substrate. The droplets form layers, and
the structure is built by depositing subsequent layers. Inkjet bioprinting allows for high-resolution
printing and precise control over droplet size, but it may be limited by the viscosity of the bioink and
cell viability during the ejection process.
Extrusion-based Bioprinting:
Extrusion-based bioprinting uses a syringe or a similar mechanism to extrude the bioink through a
nozzle. The bioink is deposited layer-by-layer to create the desired structure. This technique is versatile
and can handle a wide range of bioinks with varying viscosities, including those with living cells or cell
aggregates. It allows for high cell viability and can produce structures with controlled porosity.
However, it may have limitations in achieving high resolution and complex geometries.
Laser-assisted Bioprinting:
Laser-assisted bioprinting utilizes laser energy to precisely deposit bioinks onto a substrate. The bioink
is placed on an energy-absorbing layer, and the laser creates a pressure wave that propels the bioink
onto the substrate in a controlled manner. This technique offers high resolution, precision, and the
ability to print complex structures. It can be used with delicate bioinks and allows for cell viability.
However, laser-assisted bioprinting can be relatively slow and may have limitations in terms of bioink
viscosity.
Microvalve-based Bioprinting:
Microvalve-based bioprinting employs microvalves to control the deposition of bioinks. The bioink is
pushed through microchannels, and the microvalves open and close to release the bioink precisely. This
technique provides control over droplet size, deposition speed, and spatial accuracy. It is suitable for a
variety of bioink viscosities and can achieve high cell viability. However, the complexity of the system
and the need for careful calibration can be limitations.
Bioprinting with Solid Freeform Fabrication:
Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) combines bioprinting with traditional 3D printing methods. It
involves the deposition of both bioink and supporting materials to create complex, multi-material
structures. SFF techniques such as fused deposition modeling (FDM) or stereolithography (SLA) can
be adapted to include bioinks and allow for the incorporation of living cells. This approach provides
versatility in material selection and structural design but may require additional post-processing steps to
remove supporting materials.

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The Basic Steps of Bioprinting Process
Preparation of the bioink:
The bioink used in bioprinting is a mixture of cells, growth factors, and other biological materials that
are formulated to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Design of the tissue structure:
The tissue structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD) software, which is
then used to control the movement of the bioprinter's print head.
↓
Printing:
The bioprinter dispenses the bioink in a controlled manner, layer by layer, to build up the final tissue
structure. The bioink is deposited in a manner that promotes cell survival and tissue formation.
↓
Incubation:
After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell culture incubator, to
promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Assessment:
The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue structure, and
tissue function.
The field of bioprinting is constantly evolving, and new techniques and materials are being developed
to improve the accuracy and reliability of bioprinted tissues and organs.
Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science :
Electronic tongue and electronic nose are electronic sensing devices used to taste and smell the food
items respectively. They mimic the taste and smell functions of human tongue and nose. These devices
use number of sensors to detect and identify various compounds in food and beverages.
Electrical tongue in food science :
The electrical tongue is a device used in food science to analyze the taste and flavor of food and
beverages. An electronic tongue consists of an array of sensors and can detect chemical compounds
related to taste such as sweet, salty, sour, and bitter and the electrical tongue translates chemical
interactions into electrical signals.
It works by measuring the electrical conductivity, impedance, and capacitance of a food or beverage
sample, which are related to the concentration of ions in the sample and the texture of the sample. This
technology allows for objective, reproducible analysis of food and beverages, making it invaluable for
quality control, product development, and food safety in the food and beverage industry. By providing
precise and detailed taste profiles, the electrical tongue enhances our ability to ensure consistency and
authenticity in food products.

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In principle, "electronic tongues" function in a similar way to the "electronic nose". When a food or
beverage sample is introduced to the electronic tongue, the sensors generate specific responses based
on the taste of the compounds present. These responses are then processed to create a "taste profile"
that can be used to assess the quality, authenticity, and composition of the sample.
Mechanism:
 The technology behind the electrical tongue involves the measurement of electrical properties
of a food or beverage sample. The electrical tongue typically consists of a sensor array, which is
placed in contact with the food or beverage sample.
 The sensor array in the electrical tongue refers to a collection of multiple sensors that are
designed to detect and measure different taste qualities. These Sensor array are designed to
respond to different taste profiles, such as sweet, sour, salty, bitter. A few examples of sensors
used in electrical tonges are Potentiometric Ion-Selective Electrodes, Voltammetric Sensors,
Impedance Sensors, Optical Sensors, Conductometric Sensors, Mass-Sensitive Sensors.
 The electrical tongue translates chemical interactions into electrical signals. The data is
processed using pattern recognition algorithms to identify and quantify taste components.
Materials Used in Electrical Tongue and Nose Technology
Examples of biomaterials used in Electrical Tongue technology include:
• Polymers: Polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene oxide (PEO), are often
used as the substrate or matrix material in electrical nose and tongue sensors, as they have high
sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and are flexible and volatile organic compounds.
• Metal Oxides: Metal oxides, such as tin dioxide (SnO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO), are high
sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and ability to undergo changes in electrical
conductivity in response to different tastes and aroma.
 Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are small tubes made of carbon atoms that have high
electrical conductivity and sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and is use in electrical
tongue and nose sensors.
 Dendrimers: Dendrimers are synthetic, branched nanostructures that can be functionalized with
specific receptors or enzymes to target specific tastes and aroma. They Hence it is used in
electrical tongue and nose sensors.
 Microfluidic Devices: Microfluidic devices, which are small devices that can manipulate small
volumes of fluid, are being used in the development of electrical tongue and nose sensors.
These devices can be made from a variety of materials, including silicon, glass, and polymers,
and can be functionalized with specific receptors or enzymes to target specific tastes and aroma.
Advantages of Electrical Tongue Technology
 They are non-destructive, which means that they do not damage the food being analysed.
 Reduces the risk of contamination and allows for the rapid and consistent analysis of food and
beverage products.

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  They are also small in size, rapid and sensitive, which makes them ideal for real-time
monitoring of food quality.
 They can be used to analyse a wide variety of food products and low cost technology.
Limitations:
 The electrical tongue only measures a limited number of aspects of taste and flavour.
 The electrical properties of a food or beverage sample can be influenced by factors such as
temperature, humidity, and storage conditions, which can affect the accuracy of the electrical
tongue analysis.
Applications of electronic tongue:
 Quality Control: Ensuring consistency in flavor and taste of food and beverages
 Product Development: Assisting in the formulation of new products by providing precise taste
profiles.
 Food Authenticity: Detecting adulteration and verifying the authenticity of food products
 Shelf-Life Testing: Monitoring changes in taste over time to determine product shelf life.
 They can be used to detect the presence of foodborne pathogens which helps to prevent food
poisoning outbreaks.
Examples: Alpha MOS ASTREE Electronic Tongue: Used for taste analysis in beverages, dairy,
and pharmaceuticals.
INSENT Electronic Tongue: Applied in the food and beverage industry for taste evaluation and
quality control.
Electrical nose in food science :
The electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose, is a sophisticated device designed to replicate the
human olfactory system. The human nose can identify many odours. Each type of odour can be due to
individual chemical components present. An electronic nose is a system designed to mimic the human
sense of smell. It consists of an array of sensors that respond to volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
released by foods, beverages, or other substances. Each sensor has a detector, which interacts
selectively with chemical component and produces an electrical signal. Produced signal is processed by
a signal processor. By analysing the patterns of sensor responses, an electronic nose can identify and
classify different odours.
Some examples for sensory arrays for electronic noses are Metal Oxide Sensors (MOS), Conducting
Polymer Sensors, Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Sensors, Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
Sensors, Optical Sensors, Gas Chromatography (GC) Sensors.
Materials Used in Electrical Tongue and Nose Technology
Examples of biomaterials used in Electrical Tongue technology include:
Polymers: Polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene oxide (PEO), are often used as
the substrate or matrix material in electrical nose and tongue sensors, as they have high sensitivity to
changes in ion concentration and are flexible and volatile organic compounds.

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 • Metal Oxides: Metal oxides, such as tin dioxide (SnO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO), are high
sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and ability to undergo changes in electrical
conductivity in response to different tastes and aroma.
 Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are small tubes made of carbon atoms that have high
electrical conductivity and sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and is use in electrical
tongue and nose sensors.
 Dendrimers: Dendrimers are synthetic, branched nanostructures that can be functionalized with
specific receptors or enzymes to target specific tastes and aroma. They Hence it is used in
electrical tongue and nose sensors.
 Microfluidic Devices: Microfluidic devices, which are small devices that can manipulate small
volumes of fluid, are being used in the development of electrical tongue and nose sensors.
These devices can be made from a variety of materials, including silicon, glass, and polymers,
and can be functionalized with specific receptors or enzymes to target specific tastes and aroma.
Advantages:
• The electrical nose can provide rapid and objective analysis of food and beverage aromas and
flavors
• The electrical nose provides consistent and repeatable results.
• The electrical nose provides an objective measurement of food reduce the risk of human error.
Limitations:
• The electrical nose may not be able to fully replicate the complex sensory experience of
smelling food and beverages, as it only measures a limited number of aspects of aroma and
flavor.
• The electrical nose is only capable of detecting and quantifying a limited range of volatile
organic compounds, which may limit its ability to fully characterize the aroma and flavor of a
sample.
Applications:
• Quality Assurance: Monitoring aroma profiles to maintain product quality and consistency.
• Spoilage Detection: Identifying spoilage indicators in food products to ensure safety.
• Flavor Development: Assisting in the creation and optimization of flavors in food and
beverages.
• Environmental Monitoring: Detecting odor pollution in food production environments.
Examples: Alpha MOS FOX Electronic Nose: Utilized for aroma analysis in the food, beverage, and
fragrance industries.
AIRSENSE PEN3: Applied for quality control, freshness assessment, and spoilage detection in food
products.
Both electronic tongues and noses are still under development, but they have the potential to
revolutionize food science in future.

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DNA Origami:
DNA Origami is a technique in nanotechnology that involves folding DNA molecules into specific
shapes. The process involves using a long, single strand of DNA, called the scaffold, to guide the
folding of short, complementary DNA strands, called staples, into a desired shape.
In this technique, DNA strands are self-assembled at nanoscale to create complex and precise 2D and
3D nanostructures.
• In DNA origami, a long DNA strand and hundreds of short DNA strands are folded to create
nanostructures.
• A long DNA strand contains around 7,000 nucleotides and is called as scaffold. Short DNA strands
are called as staples.
• Scaffold is folded into specific shapes by attaching staple strands at specific positions along the
scaffold. Staple strands guide the folding process.
• Each staple has multiple binding sites that bind and bring together distant regions of the scaffold.
This causes the scaffold to bend and twist into the desired shape.
• The geometries of the resulting structures can be programmed with the staple sequences. Computer-
aided design with universal synthesis protocols can be used to automatically fabricate well-defined
nanostructures by DNA origami.
• caDNAno is the first-generation (1G), most routinely used DNA origami design software.
• DNA origami objects can be fabricated in varieties of dimension, geometry and shape. Starting from
simple single layer structure to multilayer structures, and flexible wireframe structures to rigid
polyhedral structures with user-defined asymmetry, cavities and curvatures can be fabricated.
• A typical planar DNA origami structure with approximately 200 staples with unique sequences and
positions, can exhibit surface area of 8,000–10,000 nm2.
• Various types of materials can be placed on these high surface area, DNA origami structural
frameworks at specific locations. Materials like metal particles, silica, lipids, polymer coatings, and
nano systems for nano-photonic and nano-electronic devices can be placed over DNA origami
structures.
These engineered dynamic DNA origami structures find various innovative applications.
[Link]: DNA Origami structures have well defined geometry at nano scale. These have
been used as templates or frameworks for the assembly of diverse nano materials.
[Link]-photonics and nano-electronics:DNA origami-templated nanostructures exhibit tuneable
optical or electronic properties. Hence, they find applications in nano-photonics and nano-electronics.
3. Bio-catalysis:DNA origami nanostructures provide an excellent platform for spatially organizing
enzymes which can catalyse many bio-chemical reactions.
[Link]: DNA is an information-carrying molecule. Hence, DNA origami structures are used for
creating molecular computation and signalling networks.
5. Gene therapy: DNA origami can be used as a delivery vehicle for gene therapy, as it can be
programmed to target specific cells and deliver therapeutic genes to those cells.
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6. Drug delivery: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for drug delivery, as it can be
designed to carry therapeutic agents directly to specific cells or tissues.
7. Biomedical imaging: DNA origami can be used as a tool for biomedical imaging, as it can be
designed to target specific cells or tissues and provide high-resolution images.
8. Biosensors: DNA origami can be used to develop new biosensors that can detect specific biological
molecules and signals in real-time.
Advantages of DNA Origami
1. Programmability: DNA origami allows for the precise and controlled folding of DNA molecules
into specific shapes, which can be programmed to fit the requirements of a particular application.
2. Versatility: DNA origami can be used to create a wide range of shapes, from simple 2D shapes to
complex 3D structures, which makes it a versatile tool for various applications.
3. High precision: DNA origami is capable of creating nanoscale structures with high precision and
accuracy, which is useful for many applications in the field of nanotechnology.
4. Functionality: DNA origami structures can be functionalized with additional molecules or
materials, such as proteins, nanoparticles, or other materials, which makes them useful for a variety
of applications.
5. Biocompatibility: DNA is a naturally occurring molecule, which makes it biocompatible and less
likely to cause an immune response. This makes DNA origami a promising tool for biomedical
applications, such as drug delivery.
Limitations of DNA Origami
1. Complexity: Creating complex DNA origami structures can be challenging and timeconsuming, and
requires specialized knowledge and expertise.
2. Cost: The cost of producing and synthesizing the DNA required for DNA origami can be high,
making it an expensive technique.
3. Stability: DNA origami structures are relatively fragile and can be degraded by enzymes or other
factors, which can limit their stability and shelf-life.
4. Scalability: The scalability of DNA origami remains a challenge, as producing large quantities of
complex DNA origami structures is difficult and expensive.
Biocomputing:
Biocomputing, also known as DNA computing or molecular computing, is a computational paradigm that
uses biological systems or molecules such as DNA, proteins, and cells to perform computation or store
information. It explores the intersection of biology and computer science, leveraging the information
processing capabilities of biological entities.
Working principle:
DNA-based computation relies on the ability of DNA molecules to store and process information through
hybridization and enzymatic reactions.
Information is encoded as DNA sequences, and operations are performed by manipulating these sequences
using biochemical reactions.

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Applications:
Diagnostic tools: DNA computing has been used to develop biosensors and diagnostic devices for detecting
specific biological targets.
Environmental monitoring: Engineering microorganisms to detect and respond to pollutants.
Data storage: Using DNA as a medium for high-density data storage.
Bio-manufacturing: Production of chemicals, fuels and materials using engineered organisms.
Optimization problems: DNA computing can be applied to solve optimization problems in various fields,
including biology and engineering.
Advantages:
Massive parallelism: DNA molecules can process multiple pieces of information simultaneously, leading
to high computational power.
Data density: DNA can store vast amounts of information in a compact form, making it attractive for data
storage applications.
Scalability: Potential to scale down to the molecular level.
Drawback:
Error rates: Biological processes are subject to errors, which can affect the accuracy of biocomputing
operations.
Readout and output: Translating the results of DNA computations into a readable output remains a
challenge.
Bioimaging for disease diagnosis:
Bioimaging refers to the visualization and creation of images of biological structures and processes
using various imaging techniques. It does not inhibit the various life processes such as movement,
respiration, etc., and it helps to report the 3D structure of specimens apart from inference physically.
It is helpful in connecting the observation of subcellular structures and all the tissues in the
multicellular organisms.
It plays a crucial role in medical diagnosis, research, and treatment planning. Nanoparticle fluorescence
imaging has been used in gene detection, protein analysis, enzyme activity evaluation, element tracing,
cell tracking, early stage disease diagnosis, tumour related research, and monitoring real time
therapeutic effects.
Examples of Bioimaging Techniques used for disease diagnosis include X -rays, CT (Computed
Tomography) scans, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), Super-Resolution Microscopy, PET
(Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) scans,
ultrasound, and optical imaging.
These technologies can be used to visualize a wide range of structures and functions, including bones,
tissues, organs, blood vessels, and more.
Applications:
• Medical diagnosis: Bioimaging is widely used for diagnosing and monitoring various diseases,
including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, neurological conditions, and musculoskeletal issues.

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 • Research: It enables the study of cellular and molecular processes, organ function, and disease
progression.
• Treatment planning: Bioimaging helps physicians plan surgeries and treatments by providing
detailed information about the patient's anatomy.
• Drug Development: Evaluation of drug efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution in
preclinical and clinical studies.
• Neuroscience: Mapping brain structure and function, understanding neural circuits and
disorders
Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis:
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize the field of disease diagnosis by
providing healthcare professionals with more accurate and efficient tools for identifying and treating
various conditions.
• Helps in Diagnosis, Drug design, & Deep and detailed study etc
Applications:
Image analysis: AI algorithms can analyze medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs, to
detect signs of diseases. For example, AI algorithms can identify patterns in medical images that may
indicate the presence of a particular condition, such as a tumor or an injury. This type of image analysis
is known as computer-aided diagnosis (CAD).
Data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large amounts of patient data, such as electronic health
records, to identify patterns and trends that may indicate a disease. This type of data analysis is known
as predictive analytics.
Diagnosis: AI algorithms can be used to diagnose diseases by evaluating symptoms, test results, and
other patient information. AI algorithms can help healthcare professionals make faster and more
accurate diagnoses, reducing the risk of misdiagnosis.
Personalized medicine: AI algorithms can be used to create personalized treatment plans for patients
based on their specific medical histories, lifestyles, and other factors. For example, AI algorithms can
analyze a patient's medical history, lifestyle habits, and genetic information to recommend the best
course of treatment for their condition.
Clinical decision support: AI algorithms can be integrated into electronic health records to provide
healthcare professionals with real-time decision-making support. For example, AI algorithms can
provide physicians with information about the best diagnostic tests to order, the most effective
treatments to consider, and the best ways to manage patient care
Limitations:
Lack of understanding of the underlying algorithms: AI algorithms can be complex and difficult to
understand, making it difficult for healthcare professionals to interpret the results. This can lead to
confusion and mistrust of AI-based tools, particularly among healthcare professionals who are not
familiar with AI technology.

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Bias: AI algorithms may be biased, leading to inaccurate or unfair diagnoses. For example, if an AI
algorithm is trained on data from a predominantly male population, it may not accurately diagnose
conditions that affect women differently.
Regulation: The use of AI in healthcare is heavily regulated, and it can be challenging to get approval
for new AI technologies. In many countries, AI algorithms must undergo a rigorous evaluation process
before they can be used in healthcare.
Cost: The development and implementation of AI algorithms can be expensive, which may limit access
to these technologies for some patients and healthcare facilities. This is particularly true in low- and
middle-income countries, where access to healthcare is already limited.
Despite these limitations, AI has the potential to revolutionize the field of disease diagnosis, providing
healthcare professionals with new and more accurate tools for identifying and treating a wide range of
conditions.
Bio-concrete (Biomineralization Processes Based On Bacillus Spores, And Calcium Lactate
Nutrients)
Self-healing bio-concrete is a type of concrete that incorporates microorganisms, such as Bacillus
fragments, into the mixture, along with calcium lactate as a nutrient source.
The microorganisms are activated when the concrete cracks, and they produce calcium carbonate,
which fills in the cracks and repairs the concrete. This process is known as bio-mineralization
(𝐶6𝐻10𝑂6) +6 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 +5 𝐶𝑂2+5 𝐻2𝑂
Self-healing Process Flow Chart :
Mix Bacillus bacteria and calcium lactate with concrete
↓
Bacteria remain dormant within the concrete
↓
Concrete cracks
↓
Water and oxygen enter the crack
↓
Bacteria become activated
↓
Activated bacteria produce calcium carbonate
↓
Calcium carbonate fills in the cracks
↓
Concrete is repaired and structural integrity is restored
Self-healing bio-concrete works by incorporating Bacillus bacteria into the concrete mixture, along
with calcium lactate as a nutrient source. The bacteria are dormant within the concrete and do not
become active until the concrete cracks.
When the concrete cracks, water and oxygen enter the crack and activate the Bacillus bacteria. The
bacteria then produce calcium carbonate, which is a type of mineral that is commonly found in natural
stone. The calcium carbonate acts as a binder and fills in the cracks, repairing the concrete and
restoring its structural integrity. The benefits of self-healing bio-concrete include increased durability,
reduced maintenance costs, and improved sustainability, as the concrete is able to repair itself without
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the need for human intervention. Additionally, because the microorganisms used in the concrete are
naturally occurring and non-toxic, self-healing bio-concrete is considered to be environmentally
friendly
Bioremediation via microbial surface adsorption (Removal of heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium,
Mercury, Arsenic)
Bioremediation refers to the use of microorganisms, plants, or animals to clean up contaminated
environments, such as soil, water, or air. This process occurs naturally over time, but can also be
accelerated through the addition of specific microorganisms or other biotic agents. The goal of
bioremediation is to remove contaminants from the environment and restore it to a healthy state.
Some of the microorganisms that have been shown to be effective in removing heavy metals through
microbial surface adsorption are:
a)Bacteria: Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. b)Yeast: Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and Candida albicans. c)Fungi:Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum.
The selected microorganisms are introduced to the contaminated site where they grow and colonize.
Then, they bind the heavy metals on to their cell surfaces.
Process of removing polluting heavy metals using bioremediation
Identification of heavy metal-contaminated site:
Identify the site or area contaminated with heavy metals, such as soil, water, or industrial waste sites.
↓
Isolation and characterization of metal-resistant microbial strains:
Select and isolate microbial strains that have demonstrated resistance to heavy metals. These can
include bacteria, fungi, or archaea.
↓
Culturing and enrichment of microbial strains:
Culture and propagate the selected microbial strains in a suitable growth medium under laboratory
conditions. This step aims to obtain a sufficient quantity of active microbial biomass for subsequent
applications.
↓
Preparation of microbial suspension:
Harvest the microbial biomass and prepare a suspension by suspending the biomass in a carrier
solution, such as water or a nutrient broth. This suspension will serve as the delivery system for the
microbes during application.
↓
Application of microbial suspension to the contaminated site:
Apply the microbial suspension to the heavy metal-contaminated area. This can be done through
spraying, injection, or soil/water mixing, depending on the specific site conditions.
↓
Microbial adsorption and sequestration of metal:
The applied microbial strains adsorb to the surfaces of metal particles or form biofilms. Through their
metabolic activity, the microbes produce extracellular compounds such as organic acids or biofilm
matrix components that have an affinity for binding metal ions.
↓
Separation or removal of metals from the contaminated site can be achieved through different
methods

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After the steps of microbial adsorption and sequestration of heavy metals, the subsequent separation or
removal of metals from the contaminated site can be achieved through different methods like Chemical
extraction, Biosorption, Physical removal, Electrochemical methods and Phytoremediation
Bio-mining:
Bio-mining is a biotechnological process in which microorganisms such as acidophilic bacteria or
archaea are used to extract metals from their ores.
These microorganisms are capable of breaking down and solubilizing metal compounds in the ores.
Examples for the acidophilic bacteria are acidithiobacillus, acidiphilium spp, At. thiooxidans etc.
Examples for the archaea are ferroplasma acidiphilum, acidiplasma cupricumulans, metallosphaera spp
etc.
Bio-mining is also used to process electronic wastes, and to selectively recover metals from waste
water.
Main steps involved in bio-mining process are:
• In the first step, the mineral ore is crushed into smaller particles. This increases its surface area
and makes it more accessible to microbial interactions.
• Specific microorganisms like acidophilic bacteria or archaea, are introduced to the crushed ore.
• These microorganisms grow and colonize in the medium. Then they adhere to the surface of the
mineral particles. They use their metabolic processes to oxidize the minerals and generate acid
as by-product.
• The acid generated by the microorganisms dissolves ores and releasing metal ions into the
surrounding solution.
• The metal-rich solution is known as a leachate. Various separation and purification techniques
are used to process and recover valuable metals from leachate.
The adhesion of microbes on to the mineral surface which is called as microbial surface adsorption is
the main step in bio-mining. Microbial cells can form biofilms on the mineral particles, creating a
protective environment where they can efficiently carry out their metabolic activities. Acids produced
as metabolic by-products of the microorganisms, aid in the breakdown of minerals and subsequent
release of metals in to solution.

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