MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

th
6 Sem Mechanical Engineering

(OE)

Module-1

Prof. Dr Shadakshari R
Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical
EngineeringAcharya Institute of
Technology Bengaluru-107

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Module-1 Mobility Systems

History of Automobile, Classification of Automobile w.r.t Usage, Chassis, Body, Power
Sources, capacity, main components of Internal Combustion Engines and their Functions,
Modern Fuel supply system, Cooling System, Lubrication System & Ignition System, Engine
Management System

History of Automobile
Automobiles date back to 1672 with the invention of the steam-powered vehicle, which led
to the creation of the first steam-powered automobile, built by Nicolas Cugnot in 1769.

Samuel Brown first tested the industrially applied internal combustion engine in 1826.
German inventor Carl Benz patented his Benz-Motorwagen in 1886. He developed a
gasoline-powered vehicle and made several copies.

The 1901 Mercedes designed by Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler for Daimler
Motoren Gesellschaft, is the first complete modern car in all essentials.

The thirty-five-horsepower engine weighed only fourteen pounds per horsepower, and it
achieved a top speed of fifty-three miles per hour. It was followed by the Ford Model T,
created by the Ford Motor company in 1908, the first to be mass-produced on a moving
assembly line.

William Durant founded General Motors in 1908. This led to cars becoming widely
available in the market by the early 20th century. Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler
emerged as the leading companies by 1920.

During the aftermath of the world war, production in Europe and Asia soared to meet the
growing demands. With the rise of Japan as the leading automaker by 1980, the industry
became a shared global enterprise.

Notable European and Asian producers include companies like BMW, Volkswagen,Toyota,
Hyundai, and Honda.

Types or Classification of automobiles:

Automobiles can be classified into types based on various criteria. The following are
theclassification of automobiles:

#1. Based on the purpose of the vehicle:

Automobiles are classified on the purpose of the vehicle depending on whether the

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

vehicle is used to carry passengers or used for transportation of goods or USD for any
special purpose.

1. Passenger vehicle – Car, bus, taxi, etc.

2. Commercial vehicle – Trucks, tempos, containers, etc.
3. Special purpose vehicle- Ambulance, fire brigade, police vehicle, etc.

#2. Based on the load-carrying capacity:

This classification is done on the basis of the load-carrying capacity of the vehicle. This
also implies classification based on the motor and body of the vehicle.
1. Light motor vehicle (LMV) – Car, Jeep, Minivan, etc.
2. Medium motor vehicle (MMV) – Tempo, bus, mini truck, etc.
3. Heavy motor vehicle (HMV) – Truck, trailer, container, tractor, multi-axle bus, etc.

#3. Based on the number of wheels:

The number of wheels used in a vehicle is also classified.

1. Two-wheeler – Scooter, Motorcycle, etc.

2. Three-wheeler – Autorickshaw.
3. Four-Wheeler – Car, jeep, minivan, tractor, etc.
4. Six-wheeler – Bus, mini truck, etc.
5. More than six wheels – Truck, trailer, container, multi-axle bus, etc.

#4. Based on the fuel used in the vehicle:

The fuel used is a very important component in terms of the classification of
vehicles.Fuel plays a major role in the performance and efficiency standards of the
vehicle.

Petrol – The system which uses petrol is called the Spark ignition system. The octane
number of petrol decides the anti-knock, performance, and efficiency factor. Generally,
the octane numbers available are 87, 89, and 91-93. Mostly used in passenger vehicles
and two-wheelers.

Diesel – The system is called a Compression ignition system. The cetane number of
diesel decides the compression and fuel needed for ignition. Generally, the cetane
numbers range from 45 to 55. Mostly used in commercial and heavy vehicles.

CNG – Compressed natural gas in another form of fuel used as an alternative to petrol.
The advantage is that it produces less toxic emissions from the vehicle and the
disadvantage is that it reduces the performance of the vehicle as compared to that of
petrol. These are mostly used in public transportation vehicles and passenger cars.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Electric – Electric vehicle is relatively a new technology used as an alternative to

combustible fuels. These vehicles use electricity as fuel from the high-capacity battery.

Hydrogen – The hydrogen fuel cell is an upcoming invention in the automobile industry
which is currently in full swing research. It is expected to provide a safer and more
economical route for the automobile industry.

#5. Based on the transmission system of the vehicle:

Automobiles can be classified into three types based on the transmission system. They
are the following:
Manual transmission system – This system uses a frictional clutch attached to the
driving shaft. The linkage between the fictional clutch and flywheel is used to clutch and
declutch the transmission.

Automatic Transmission system – A torque converter is used to transmit rotational

energy in this system. The gear changes are controlled by the computer systems in the
automobile which uses planetary gears, clutches, and brakes.

Semi-automatic transmission system – It can be referred to as a hybrid of automatic

and manual transmission systems. The input is manual and the output is automated in
this system, the only difference being the absence of a manual clutch.

Continuously variable transmission (CVT) – In CVT transmission, the push belt

transfers torque from one pulley to another. This is used to smoothly change the gears.

#6. Based on the power source of the vehicle:

The power supply of an automobile is an important factor and the classification of
powersupply used in automobiles is the following:

Internal combustion engine (ICE) – As the name suggests, IC engines use combustible
fuel for power generation in the engine. It consists of parts such as an intake manifold,
intake valve, cylinder head, pistons, crankshaft, camshaft, flywheel, exhaust manifold,
exhaust valve, and spark plug (only in petrol engines).

Electric battery (EV) – These vehicles use one or more electric motors for propulsion
instead of an IC engine. The electricity is supplied by the high voltage batteries present in
these vehicles. These vehicles are currently on a high rise in the market as a solution to
the rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural resources, etc.

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) – Hydrogen fuel cell is the next-gen technology that
uses hydrogen as fuel. HFCV is considered a permanent replacement for combustible

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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fuels as hydrogen resources are available in abundance. The reaction is hydrogen with
oxygen is used to produce power which is used to run the motor. The exhaust of the
system is in the form of water vapor.

#7. Based on the suspension system of the vehicle:

The suspension system decides the load distribution and comfort level of the vehicle.
Vehicles are categorized on the basis of suspension systems as follows:
Independent Suspension system – In this type of system, only the wheel under load
adjusts its position and there is zero to little effect on the opposite wheel. It is
generally used for the front axle. Examples are Mac person strut, wishbone, etc.
Non-independent or rigid suspension system – In this type of system, when one
wheel is in contact with any bump or uneven road the other one will also change its
position and may tilt or move upwards or downwards. This is mostly used in heavy
vehicles.

Air suspension system – Airbags fed with air are used as shock absorbers in this type
of system. Compressed air under the pressure of around 5.6-7 kg/sq.m is used with the
help of the air compressor in the suspension system.

Pneumatic air suspension system- This system is an electrically controlled air

suspension system. It consists of an electronic control unit (ECU) that feeds and
releasesthe air pressure inside the airbags according to the bumps or uneven surfaces. It
also consists of a motor that runs the control unit and air compressor.

#8. Based on the wheel drive of the vehicle:

Wheel drive of a vehicle implies the axle of the vehicle which is used for the driveshaft.
The driver shaft transmits the power of the vehicle from the engine to the wheels. These
are classified as follows:

Front-wheel drive (FWD) – As the name suggests, the propeller shaft is connected to the
front axle and it’s used as the driver shaft of the vehicle. The front wheels rotate and
move the vehicle. Front-wheel drive has better traction and efficiency than rear-wheel
drive as the vehicle is more weighted at the front.

Rear-wheel drive (RWD) – In rear-wheel drive, the propeller shaft is connected to the rear
axle and the rear wheels of the vehicle rotate. These types of vehicles have better
stability and cornering control as the front wheels are used for the sole purpose of
steering and it has less effect on the front wheels.

All-wheel drive (AWD) – In all-wheel drive, the propeller shaft is attached to both the
axles of the vehicle. All the wheels in the vehicle rotate with the power distributed equally.
These types of vehicles utilize the maximum power of the engine.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

#9. Based on the drive end of the vehicle:

Vehicles are also classified based on the position of the steering system. It consists of
two types:

Right-hand drive – The vehicles which have the steering system on the right side of the
car are right-hand drive vehicles. These vehicles have steering on the right and move on
the left side of the road.

Left-hand drive – The vehicles which have the steering system on the left side of the car
are left-hand drive vehicles. These vehicles have steering on the left and move on the
right side of the road.
#10. Based on the engine location of the vehicle:
The location of the engine in a vehicle is different in various vehicles. These are
categorized as follows:

Front engine – In this system, the engine is located at the front end of the vehicle over or
ahead of the front axle. These vehicles are weighted at the front end.

Mid-engine – In this system, the engine is located near the rear end of the vehicle but
forward of the rear axle. These vehicles have weight evenly distributed.

Rear engine – In this system, the engine is located beyond the rear axle. These are less
common as compared to other systems.
Main components of Internal Combustion Engines and their Functions
MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE
1. Cylinders
2. Piston
3. Connecting rod
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves and valve actuating mechanisms

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Basic Engine Terminology:

Top dead centre (TDC): When the piston is at its top most position i.e., the position closest
to cylinder head, it is called top dead centre.
Bottom dead centre (BDC): When the piston is at its lowest position i.e., the position
farthest from the cylinder head, it is called bottom dead centre.
Bore: The 'Bore' is referred to the diameter of engine cylinder. It is denoted by 'D'. Stroke
length or stroke: The distance travelled by the piston between TDC and BDC is called
stroke of the piston and is denoted by 'L'.
Clearance volume: When the piston is in TDC position the cylinder volume above it, is
called clearance volume and is denoted by 'Vc'.
Swept volume or piston displacement: The volume swept by piston while moving from
TDC to BDC is called swept volume. It is denoted by , Vs .
Compression ratio: It is the ratio of volume above the piston at BDC to the volume above
the piston at TDC. It is the ratio of total volume of the cylinder (Vs + Vc), to the clearance
volume. It is denoted by ‘r’ For Petrol engines, it ranges from 8 to 12. For diesel engines, it
ranges from 15 to 24
Mean effective pressure: As piston performs power stroke, cylinder pressure decreases.
Thus it is required to refer an average effective pressure throughout the whole power
stroke. It is expressed in bars.
Power: It is the work done in a given period of time. More power is required to do the same
amount of work in a lesser time.
Indicated Power (I.P.): The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated
power. It is expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is given by area under engine indicator diagram
Brake Power (B.P.): This is the actual power available at the crank shaft. The indicated
power minus various power losses in the engine like friction and pumping losses in the
engine, gives Brake power. It is measured by using a Dynamometer and is expressed in
kilowatts (kW).
Engine torque: It is the force of rotation acting about the crank shaft axis at any given
instant of time
CYLINDERS
The cylinder is the main body of an engine in which piston reciprocates to develop power.
It has to with stand very high pressure and temperature (around 2800°C). A cylinder block
is one which houses the engine cylinders. If cylinder block and crank case are made
integral, then the construction is called 'Mono block'. The cylinder material should be such

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

that it should retain strength at higher temperatures, should be good conductor of heat
and should resist rapid wear and tear due to reciprocating action of the piston. Generally,
cast iron is used. For heavy duty engines alloy steels are used. For cooling water
circulation, passages are provided around the cylinders. Cylinder block also carries
lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages. At the lower end of
cylinder block, crank case is made integral with the block. At the top, cylinder block is
attached with the cylinder head. It houses inlet and exhaust valves. Besides, other parts
like timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, fly wheel, fuel pump, etc., are also
attached to it.
The materials used for cylinder block are grey cast Iron and aluminium alloys.
Grey Cast Iron: The grey cast iron for cylinder block has the composition; carbon - 3.5 %,
silicon - 2.5%, manganese - 0.65 %. The cast iron material has the following advantages.
1.It is relatively cheap and posses good foundry properties.
2.The co-efficient of thermal expansion of cast iron is low.
3.It has high machinability and does not wear too much.
The Aluminium alloy: The Aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the composition. Silicon -
11%, Manganese 0.5%, Magnesium 0.4% The aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the
following advantages.
1.It has higher thermal conductivity than cast-iron. This results in efficient cooling of
engine. so that higher compression ratios may be used.
2.The density of aluminium is about one third that of cast iron. It is a light material.
3.But considering lesser strength of aluminium, thicker sections have to be used to carry
same load. Further, in case of any loss of coolant, it cannot with stand high temperature
and damage may occur. It wears more than cast iron
PISTON:
The piston is a reciprocating part of the engine and converts the combustion pressure in
the cylinder to a force on the crank shaft. Pistons are slightly smaller in diameter than the
cylinder bore. The space and is called "clearance". This 'clearance' is necessary to provide
space for a film of lubricant. Pistons are made of aluminium alloys, cast steel, cast iron or
chrome nickel.
Aluminium alloy pistons are used in modern automobiles
Functions
1. It forms a seal within the cylinder to avoid entry of high-pressure gases from
combustion chamber into crank

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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2. It transmits the force of explosion to the crank

3. It acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin

A typical I.C. engine piston is as shown in figure. The piston almost has the shape of an
Inverted bucket. The top portion of the piston is called head or crown. In some engines,
pistons may be specially designed to form desired shape of the combustion chamber. At
the piston top, few grooves are cut to accommodate the piston rings and the bands left
between the grooves are known as "Lands". They support the rings against gas pressure.
The portion below rings is called piston skirt. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside
to support the piston pin
The Aluminium alloy pistons have the following advantages over cast iron pistons.
1.Lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm. [It is 3 times lighter than C.I. piston which is
desirable from inertia point of view].
2.It has higher thermal conductivity allowing the use of higher compression ratio.
The aluminium alloy pistons have the disadvantages like.
1.It is not as strong as cast iron; hence thicker sections have to be used.
2.Aluminium alloy is soft, fine particles of lubricating oil become embedded in it. It causes a
sort of grinding.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

3.It causes a sort of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls thus decreases cylinder life.
4.The main drawback of using aluminium alloy pistons with cast iron cylinders is their
unequal coefficient of expansion which causes engine slap.
Piston rings:
Piston rings are located towards the top of the piston. The top two piston rings are called
compression rings and are designed to maintain cylinder pressure. The bottom ring is
called oil ring, (may be 1 or 2 in number) they scrape the excess oil from the cylinder walls
and return it through slots to the piston ring grooves. A properly constructed and fitted ring
will rub against the cylinder wall with good contact all around the cylinder. The ring will ride
in grooves that are cut into the piston head.

The material generally used for piston rings is fine grained alloy cast iron containing silicon
and manganese. It has good heat resisting qualities. Rings with molybdenum filled face
have also been introduced recently. Alloy steels are also used. The number of rings vary
depending on the engine design. It varies from two to four.
Generally, the ring is cast and machined and put in position in the ring grooves. It exerts
uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap is to be cut at the ends so that while
inserting the ring, it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released in to the
ring groove. The gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder.
Functions:
1.It forms a seal so that high pressure gases from the combustion chamber will not escape
into the crank case.
2.It provides easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the cylinder walls.
3.It maintains enough lubrication oil cylinder walls throughout the stroke length. This
reduces ring and cylinder wear. The thickness of oil film is to be controlled and the oil

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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should not go up into the combustion chamber where it would burn and produces carbon
deposits
Connecting rod

The connecting rods are used to connect pistons to the crank shaft. The upper end of rod
oscillates (swing back and forth) while the lower and or big end rotates (turns). It converts
reciprocating motion of the piston in to rotary motion of the crank shaft. The upper end of
the rod has a hole through it for the piston pin. The lower end must be split type. A
combination of axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial stresses
are due to gas pressure in the cylinder and inertia force caused by reciprocating motion.
Bending stresses are caused due to centrifugal effects. Connecting rods are manufactured
by casting and forging processes. The rod has an I-beam cross section to provide
maximum rigidity with minimum weight. Generally, rods are made by drop forging of steel
or duralumin and also cast from malleable cast iron.

CRANK SHAFT
The crank shaft provides a constant turning force to the wheels. It receives the power from
connecting rods and subsequently transmits to the wheels. Crank shafts are made of alloy
steel or cast iron

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Introduction of Chassis Frame

Chassis frame is the basic frame work of the automobile. It supports allthe parts of the
automobile attached to it. It is made of drop forged steel. All the parts related to
automobiles are attached to it only. All the systems related to automobile like
powerplant, transmission, steering, suspension, braking systemetc are attached to and
supported by it only.
Layout of Chassis and its main components
“Chassis” a French termwhich means the complete Automobiles without Body and it
includes all the systems like power plant, transmission, steering, suspension , wheels
tyres , auto electric system etc. without body. If Body is also attached to it them it is
known as the particular vehicle as per the shape anddesign of the body.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Front Shackle Frame Shackel

Rear
Dumb spring Spring
Iron Engine Gear box RearAxle
Propeller
Clutch
Shaft

Side members Horizontal Pet rol

Member Tank

Fig 1.1 Chassis

The Functions of the Chassis frame
1.To carryallthe stationary loads attached to it and loads of passengerand cargo carried in it .
2.To withstandtorsionalvibrationcausedbythemovement ofthe vehicle
3.To withstand the centrifugalforce caused bycornering ofthe vehicle
4.To control the vibration caused by the running ofthe vehicle
5.To withstandbending stresses due to rise and fallof the front and rearaxles.
Types of Chassis frame
There are different types of chassis frame sections
1. Channel section

2. Box section
3.Tubular section
The conventional frame is also known as Non-load carrying frame. Inthis types of frame ,
the loads on the vehicle are transferred to the suspension bythe frame which is the main
skeletonof the vehicle.
The channel section is used in long members and box section in short members.
Tubular section is used now-a-days is three wheelers, scooters, matadors and
pickup vans.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

The frames should be strong enough to bear load while sudden brakesand accidents.

Various loads acting on the Chassis frame

The loads acting on the chassis frame are as follow
1.Stationary loads namely the loads of permanent attachment like allthe parts of
the chassis, body etc.
2. Short duration loads while turning , braking etc.
3.Momentary loads while quick acceleration , sudden braking etc.
4.Loads applied while crossing roads of irregular and uneven surfaces
5.Loads caused by sudden accidents, head on collusions etc.
6.Loads caused by irregular and overloading of vehicle.
Different Bodies used in Automobiles
The automobiles bodies are designed according to the requirement of
the vehicle. According to design and requirement of the vehicle , there aredifferent
types ofAutomobiles bodies. Some of them are listed as below :
(i) Car
(ii) Straight truck or Punjab truck body
(iii) Truck with half body
(iv) Platformtype truck
(v) Tractor
(vi) Tractor witharticulated trailer
(vii) Tanker
(viii) Bus
(ix) Dumper truck
(x) Deliveryvan
(x) Station wagon
(xi) Pick up van
(xii) Jeep
(xiv) Long wheel base truck etc
Requirement of Bodies for various types of vehicles
According to requirement, automobile bodies are classified mainly into different types
namely private vehicle, commercial vehicle, fleet transport vehicle, passenger transport
vehicle, Ambulances vehicle used for transport of Army personal, Ammunition etc.,
different types of tanker vehicle etc. If it is a privatevehicle, the vehicle is used for luxury

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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personaltravelling,private cargo transportetc, namely car, minivan,Omni bus, matador etc.

If it is commercial vehicle the vehicle is used for transportation of goods some other
vehicles, freezer boxes etc. If it is tanker, it is used to transport milk, water, edible oils,
petroleum products, gases, acids etc. The tanker bodiesare designed according to the
relevant requirement.
If it is an army vehicle, the vehicle is separately designed namely Arm truck, heavy long
wheel base cargo trucks,long platform trucks etc. These areexclusively used to carry the
armypersonal, arms and ammunitions etc.
Some automobiles manufacturing companies are using long wheel base trucks with
closed body structure for transporting of the vehicle produced in their factories to
different market outlets.
The private vehicles used in different fields namely Buses of different types, air
conditioned Buses, station Wagons etc, Usually Road Transport organization of a
state is a fleet organized jointly by the state Government anexclusive body which is to
operate buses for travelling of passenger to various places within the state as well as
Inter-State travelling also the Road transport corporation organization is having
differently designed buses namely ordinarybody buses, Deluxe buses , semiluxury buses,
Air conditioned buses and alsobuses with sleeper coach etc.
power source of the vehicle:
The power supply of an automobile is an important factor and the classification of
power supply used in automobiles is the following:
Internal combustion engine (ICE) – As the name suggests, IC engines use
combustible fuel for power generation in the engine. It consists of parts such as
an intake valve, intake manifold, cylinder head, pistons, crankshaft, camshaft,
flywheel, exhaust manifold, exhaust valve, and spark plug (only in petrol engines).
Electric battery (EV) – These vehicles use one or more electric motors for
propulsion instead of an IC engine. The electricity is supplied by the high voltage
batteries present in these vehicles. These vehicles are currently on a high rise in
the market as a solution to the rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural
resources, etc.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) – Hydrogen fuel cell is the next-gen technology
that uses hydrogen as fuel. HFCV is considered a permanent replacement for
combustible fuels as hydrogen resources are available in abundance. The reaction
is hydrogen with oxygen is used to produce power which is used to run the motor.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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The exhaust of the system is in the form of water vapor.

Cubic capacity or engine capacity (CC):
The displacement volume or Swept volume of a cylinder multiplied by number of
cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or the engine capacity (CC).
For example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then Cubic capacity (CC) = Vs X
K

FUELS, FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR SI AND CI ENGINES

Conventional fuels
Conventional fuel used in the automobiles are gasoline and diesel fuel.

Gasoline or Petrol
 It is a mixture of large number of hydrocarbons
 It is lightest and most volatile liquid mainly used as motor fuel
 It is obtained by fractional distillation from crude oil
 Calorific value:48000 kJ/k
Diesel
 The liquid fuel distilled after gasoline and kerosene
 These fuels are used in diesel engines
 It evaporates slowly when compared to petrol as it is heavier
 Calorific value:44800 kJ/kg

Alternative fuels
 Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be manufactured from vegetable oils, animal
fats, orrecycled cooking grease for use in diesel vehicles.
 Hydrogen is a potentially emissions- free alternative fuel that can be produced
fromdomestic resources for use in fuel cell vehicles.
 Natural gas is a domestically abundant gaseous fuel that can have significant
fuel costadvantages over gasoline and diesel fuel.
 Ethanol is a widely used renewable fuel made from corn and other plant
materials. It isblended with gasoline for use in vehicles.
 Propane is a readily available gaseous fuel that has been widely used in vehicles
throughout the world for decades.

Fuel supply system in SI engine

The main purpose of the fuel feed system is to control the fuel supply to the engine. To
supply thefuel from the fuel tank to the engine cylinders, manufacturers use the following
methods in case of a petrol engine.
Basic fuel supply system with petrol engine consists of following components:

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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 Fuel tank
 Fuel pump
 Fuel lines
 Air cleaner
 Fuel filter
 Carburetor
 Inlet manifold
 Supply and return pipelines

Types of Fuel Supply System in Petrol Engine:

The following are the types of systems that have been used for the supply of fuel from
the fueltank to the engine cylinder.

 Gravity system
 Pressure system
 Pump system
 Fuel Injection System
Gravity system, pressure system, and pump system make use of the carburetor whereasthe
fuel injection system does not use carburetor for the Air/Fuel supply. The Gravity system
is confined to two-wheelers only whereas the Pressure and theVacuum systems are
almost obsolete now.The Pump system is widely used in automobiles and due to
certain advantages, theusage of the Fuel injection system is rapidly increasing in modern
vehicles.

Gravity system

In this system, the fuel tank is mounted at the highest position from where the fuel
drops intothe carburetor float chamber by gravity. The system is very simple and

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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cheap.

Pump system

In this system, a steel pipe is used to carry petrol from the fuel tank to the fuel pump,
whichpumps it into the float chamber of the carburettor through a flexible pipe.
The mechanical pump or electronic pump is used.

Fuel Injection (FI) System

Modern/present-day vehicles use petrol injection system which replaced the

carburetor. The injector nozzle atomizes the fuel and forces it into the air stream.
Newer generation engines use separate injector for each cylinder.
The air-fuel mixture for different load and speed conditions is controlled either
mechanically or electronically. Hence, this makes the fuel system more accurate.
Carburettor
A carburetor is a device used by an internal combustion engine to control and mix air and
fuel entering the engine.
Working of simple carburettor

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

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A simple carburetor consists of different parts such as the float chamber, main fuel jet,
venturi, jet tube, and throttle valve. Where there is a float in the float chamber. With the
help of a fuel pump, fuel is supplied to the float chamber from the fuel tank through the
strainer.

Working of a simple carburettor:

As we know, there is a float chamber in a simple carburettor that is open to the

atmosphere.It keeps atmospheric pressure in the float chamber.
Fuel from the external fuel tank is supplied to the float chamber with the help of
the fuel pump. This fuel from the fuel tank is filtered using the strainer which
removes any solid particles from the fuel.

Now fuel from the float chamber is supplied to the main nozzle which is a part of
the jet tube. This flow of fuel from the float chamber to the main nozzle is carried
out by the mainfuel jet.
The engine sucks air from the atmosphere through the choke valve. This air passes
throughthe venturi, it causes a reduction of the area of a cross-section at the throat
of venturi.
Due to this, the pressure at the main nozzle decreases and the velocity of air
increases.
This difference in pressure-induced at the float chamber and the main nozzle
causes the mixture of fuel and incoming atmospheric air.
Then the air fuel mixture enters to the engine cylinder during suction stroke

Ignition system

The purpose of the ignition system is to generate a very high voltage from the battery, and
to send this to each sparkplug in turn, igniting the fuel-air mixture in the engine 's
combustion chambers

Firing order

The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a multi-cylinder
reciprocating engine. This is achieved by sparking of the spark plugs in a gasoline engine
in the correct order, or by the sequence of fuel injection in a diesel engine.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

1-3-2 for three-cylinder engine

1-3-4-2 for four-cylinder

engine

1-5-3-6-2-4 for six-cylinder engine

Battery or Coil Ignition system

A battery ignition system is a type of ignition system used in a spark-ignition engine for
powering the spark plug so that spark can be generated to burn the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber. The ignition system powered by a 6- or 12-volt battery charged by
the engine-driven generator (alternator). This battery supplies electricity to the ignition
system, thus, it’s named battery ignition system. There are two basic circuits in this
system, they are primary and secondary

circuits. The battery, primary winding of the ignition coil, condenser and the contact
breaker form the primary circuit. The secondary winding of the ignition coil, distributor
and the sparkplugs forms the secondary circuit.

When the ignition switch is in ON position, the current flows in the primary circuit will
grow exponentially during the make period of the contact breaker. The electromagnetic
energy on account of this buildup of current in the primary circuit is stored in the
laminated iron core of the ignition coil. As the contact breaker points open, the magnetic
field built up by the growth of the current collapses and the energy stored during the
make period is projected into the secondary circuit. This energy suddenly passed onto the

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

secondary winding, inducing an “e m f”. As the break is made very sharp, the induced e m f
is very large being proportional to the change of flux in the winding. As a result, a sudden
voltage surge of very high amplitude is produced in the secondary winding, causing spark
to at the sparkplugs. The distributor distributes the high voltage to each sparkplug as per
firing order.

Magneto Ignition system

Figure shows the magneto ignition system, which consists of rotating magnet, armature,
primary winding, secondary winding, contact breaker, condenser, distributor and
sparkplugs.

The rotating magnet produces and supplies the current in the primary winding. When the
ignition switch is in ON position, the current flows in the primary circuit will grow
exponentially during the make period of the contact breaker. The electromagnetic energy
on account of this build up of current in the primary circuit is stored in the laminated iron
core of the ignition coil. As the contact breaker points open, the magnetic field built up by
the growth of the current collapses and the energy stored during the make period is
projected into the secondary circuit. This energy suddenly passed onto the secondary
winding, inducing an “e m f”. As the break is made very sharp, the induced e m f is very
large being proportional to the change of flux in the winding. As a result, a sudden voltage
surge of very high amplitude is produced in the secondary winding, causing spark to at
the sparkplugs. The distributor distributes the high voltage to each sparkplug as per firing
order.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Electronic Ignition system

When the armature tooth moves away from the pickup coil, a voltage signal is not
generated and due to this, the timing circuit inside the ignition module turns ON and
thereby the current will flow again into the circuit.

Due to the continuous make and break of the current, a magnetic field is generated in the
ignition coil. Due to the magnetic field, an electromotive force(EMF) is induced in the
secondary winding causing the voltage to increase up to 50,000 volts.

This high voltage is then transferred to the distributor. The rotor inside the distributor
rotates according to the ignition timing. When the rotor comes exactly in front of the
distributor point, the voltage jumps due to the air gap from the rotor to the point.

A high voltage is then transferred from the distributor to the spark plug terminal via a high
tension cable. A voltage difference is generated between the central electrode and the
ground electrode. The voltage continues to transfer through the central electrode which is
sealed using the insulator.

When the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of the gases between these electrodes,
the gases are ionized. Due to ionization, gas becomes a conductor and allows the current
to flow through the gap and thus, the spark is finally produced.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

ENGINE COOLING:

In the process of converting thermal energy in to mechanical work, as a result of

combustion, high temperatures are produced. This heat is transferred to the cylinder
walls, piston and valves. Unless these parts are adequately cooled, the engine will be
damaged. A part of total fuel energy is converted in to mechanical work and rest is
rejected in the form of

 1. Heat from engine surface by combined action of conduction, convection and

radiation.

 2. Heat lost to exhaust.

 3. Heat rejected in to the coolant.

 In general, engine converts 30 percent of total fuel energy in to useful work, 30

percent is lost in exhaust heat and cooling system has to remove 30 percent heat
energy to maintain engine temperature. Some energy lost occurs in friction,
compression etc. The cooling system maintains temperature of engine components
within certain limits and increases engine performance. Cooling beyond optimum
limits is not desirable as it decreases the overall efficiency due to following reasons.

1.More lost of heat to cylinder walls causes decrease, in thermal efficiency.

2.Combustion efficiency decreases due to less evaporation of fuel at lower temperature.
3. At lower temperature, viscosity of lubricant increases and results in more frictional
losses. This reduces overall efficiency.
The engine cooling is necessary due to following reasons.
1.As engine temperature increases, the strength of materials used for various engine
components decreases. As an example, in water cooled engines the temperature of cylinder
head should not exceed 270°C, and for air cooled engines, uses light alloys, the temperature
should not exceed 200°C.
2. The lubricating oil used in the engine also decides the maximum temperature that can be
used. For different lubricating oils, this temperature range varies from 160°C to 200°C. If the
engine temperature exceeds this limit, it may deteriorate the lubricating oil or evaporate and

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

burn to cause piston and cylinder damage. Overheating results in piston seizing also.
3. High cylinder head temperature result in loss of volumetric efficiency and reduces power
output.
4. High engine temperature may cause pre ignition and detonation.
METHODS OF COOLING
1.Air cooling 2. Water cooling
1) Air Cooling: Here, the air stream flows continuously over the heated metal surface
andthe rate of heat dissipation depends on surface area of metal, air mass flow rate,
thermal conductivity of metal, temperature difference between metal surface and air.
To increase the effectiveness, the metal surface area which is in contact with air should be
increased. This is done by providing fins over cylinder barrels. The fins may be cast integral
with the cylinder or may be attached separately.
Advantages:
1.Absence of radiator cooling jackets and coolant reduces weight of the system.
2.Air cooled engines are useful in extreme climates, where water may freeze.
3.These engines warm up earlier than water cooled engines.
4.Easy maintenance as there is no leakage problem.
Disadvantages:
1.These are noisier, because of absence of cooling water which acts as sound insulator.
2.Heat transfer co-efficient for air is less. Hence less efficient cooling and results in
decrease of highest useful compression ratio.
3.Distortion of cylinder may occur due to uneven cooling all around the cylinder.

2) Water Cooling: In these systems, the water jackets surrounds engine cylinders and
cooling water flows through these jackets. Heat is conducted through the cylinder walls to
the water in the jackets which removes the excess heat as it circulates through the radiator.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Water cooling systems are classified into two types.

a. Thermosyphon system.
b. Pump circulation system.
(a) Thermosyphon system:
In this system the engine is connected to radiator through flexible hoses. The difference in
densities of hot and cold regions of cooling water causes water circulation between engine
and radiator.
The water in circulation absorbs heat from engine cylinder and hence cool it. The heat from
the water is then dissipated into atmosphere through the radiator by conduction and
convection. This cools the water which is required for further circulation. Sometimes fans
are used behind the radiator to increase the air mass flow rate and- hence to increase
cooling efficiency.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

(b) Pump circulation system: This system is similar to thermo syphon system explained
above.
•This principle is similar to thermo siphon system but the heat dissipated by the engine
is so large that it is not possible to cool the engine by thermo siphon principle
•To enable faster cooling , a pump is introduced to the system between the radiator and
the engine block
•When the pump rotates water is circulated with some force, therefore heat of the
engine block is removed quickly without any difficulty.
Advantage of Pump circulating
(a)No need to place the radiator header tank above the engine level, as water circulation
is effected by pump.
(b)Radiator may be placed on the side or on the rear, if necessary.
(c)Cooling water circulation is proportional to both load and speed.
(d)Because of efficient cooling, water jacket size can be reduced. This results in overall
decrease in engine size.
THERMOSTAT VALVES
It is to be noted that the cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases
the overall efficiency of the engine. A thermostat is used to regulate the rate of cooling.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

It keeps the cooling water temperature at a predetermined value.

Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles.
1.Bellows type
2.Wax or hydrostatic type

This thermostat consists of metallic bellows filled with some volatile liquids like alcohol,
acetone, ether etc., whose boiling temperature ranges between 70-85°C. One end of
bellows contains a valve and to the other end a frame is attached' which fits in to the
cooling passage. The thermostat is fitted in the water hose pipe at the engine outlet.
After the engine has started, cooling system should not operate during warming up
duration~ that engine warms up early. During this warming up period, the liquid inside
the bellows has not yet changed its state and hence does not exert any pressure on the
valve. Therefore, the valve remains in closed position.
If the temperature of the cooling water exceeds a pre-determined as 80°C the liquid
inside the bellows. Vaporizes and exerts a pressure on the valve. The valve opens and
allows water circulation through the radiator, as water temperature rises, valve opens
gradually, thus controls the flow of water through the radiator according to engine
cooling requirement.
Wax thermostat:

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

It is also known as Dole thermostat. This thermostat is more reliable to operate within
the specified temperature range and is not sensitive to pressure variations. The heat
carried by the coolant is transmitted to the copper loaded wax having high thermal
expansion coefficient.
The expansion of copper loaded wax makes the rubber plug to contract against the
plunger and hence exerts a force on it in upward direction. This makes the plunger to
move upward and opens a valve in the thermostat (Not shown). This allows the coolant
to flow through the radiator.

ENGINE LUBRICATION
 Lubrication is the most important phase of vehicle maintenance. Without lubrication,
engine cannot run smoothly even a few minutes. Inadequate lubrication results in
engine troubles like scored cylinders, burned out bearings, misfiring cylinders, dirty
spark plugs, stuck piston rings, engine deposits and sludge and more fuel
consumption.
 Dry or solid friction is a result of direct contact between two metallic surfaces or due
to inter locking of irregularities on metal surfaces, produces lot of heat and causes
wear of the metal surface
 Hydrodynamic lubrication means, introduction of lubricating oil between two
surfaces. There is no physical contact between them and only resistance to motion
is resistance offered by the oil itself.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

 In boundary lubrication, the introduction of lubricant between surfaces will not cause
complete separation between them. The surfaces touch at their high spots.
Boundary lubrication exist in piston rings and valve train

OBJECTS OF LUBRICATION
 The main objects of lubrication are (a) It reduces power loss by minimizing friction
between moving parts.
 (b) Decreases wear and tear of the moving components. The lubrication also serves
other purposes like.
1.Cooling effect: The lubricant absorbs heat from hot moving parts and dissipates it to
the surrounding air through the crank case.
2.Cushioning effect: The lubricant serves as a good cushion against shocks present in
the engine. For example, instant combustion causes sudden pressure rise and the resultant
shock goes to the bearings through piston, piston pin and connecting rod. Then the
lubricant present in the main bearings absorbs this shock.
To act as cleaning agent: As lubricating oil circulates, it absorbs so many impurities and oil
may be further purified by filtration. Ex.: oil dissolves carbon particles during its circulation.
Sealing action: It maintains an effective seal on the piston rings and avoids entry of high
pressure gases into the crank case.
ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
 In an automobile engine, various systems adopted for lubrication are classified in to
1.Petrol-oil system (Mist lubrication).
2.Wet sump system.
(a)Splash lubrication b) Pressure feed lubrication
3.Dry sump system
1.Petro-oil System: In this method some amount of lubricating oil is directly mixed
with the petrol. i.e., about 25 to 30ml. of oil mixes with one litre of petrol. If oil is less,
it causes damage to the engine. If addition of oil is more, there may be excessive
carbon deposits in the cylinder head and produces poor emissions. This method is
used in scooter and motor cycles [two-stroke engines].
2.Wet Sump System: In this system, the crank case contains an oil pan or sump that
serves as the oil supply or reservoir tank. It also serves as the oil cooler. Oil from the
cylinders and bearings flows by gravity back into the wet sump from where it is
pumped and recirculated to the engine lubricating system. The wet sump system is

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

again classified into a) Splash lubrication system.

b)Pressure feed system. c)Semi pressure feed system.
(a)Splash Lubrication System: It is the cheapest method of lubrication and was used
in early motor cycles. The lower end of the connecting rod consists of a scoop like
structure as in the figure. The oil is stored in the oil trough (being delivered from the
crank case oil sump).
When the engine runs, the connecting rod oscillates and the scoop takes the oil from
oil trough and splashes on to the cylinder walls each time when it passes through
BDC position. This lubricates engine walls, gudgeon pin, main crank shaft bearings,
big end bearings etc. The oil dripping from the cylinder walls, collects in the tank
where it is cooled by air flow.

(b) Pressure Feed System: This system is most commonly used in modern car
engines. In this system, the oil forces oil under pressure to the main bearings,
connecting rod and cam shaft bearings and also to the timing gears. Drilled
assuages in the crank shaft carry oil from the main bearings to the connecting rod
bearings. The cylinder walls, piston pin, piston and piston rings are lubricated by oil
spray from the connecting rod and crank shaft. For the cam shaft and timing gears,
there is a separate oil line from the main oil gallery. The basic components of the wet
lubricating system are pump, strainer, pressure regulator, filter etc.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

3.Dry Sump Lubricating System: In this system, two pumps are used. The ump 'A' is
called scavenging pump and is located in the crank case portion as in figure. The oil
from this pump is carne to an external tank i.e., reservoir. The pressure urn '8' urn s
the oil through filter to the cylinder and bearings. Oil dripping from cylinder and
bearings in to the sump is again removed by scavenging pump (sump pump), which
supplies oil to the reservoir. As the capacity of sump pump is greater than oil pump,
oil will not be accumulated in the engine base. The oil pump draws oil from the
supply tank and delivers it under pressure to the engine bearings and oil pressure of
400- 500 kpa is maintained in main and big end bearings. A pressure of about 50-100
kpa is maintained in timing gears and cam shaft bearings etc. This system is
suitable for lubricating sport cars, jeeps etc.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

 MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654)

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

Engine Management System (EMS)
Engine Management System (EMS) comprises of Electronic Control Unit (ECU), sensors,
actuators and control algorithms that determine the performance of the Engine as a
whole and as partof the vehicle
The Electronic Control Unit consist of a 32-bit microprocessor with peripheral devices like
ignitiondriver and I/O drivers. Microprocessor controls the injection parameters as well as
some of the vehicle related outputs such as Fan, AC drivability in gears, variable turbine
turbocharger, EGR etc. The ECU receives input from various sensors located on the engine
and the vehicle, and decides the injection quantity, injection timing, number of injections best
suited for the engine to work with maximum efficiency and safety. It is the ‘Brain’ of the
Engine Management System. Being the most important component of the Engine
management system, ECU apart from ensuring the optimum working of the Vehicle, also
keeps an eye on the working of the sensors and actuators. Whenever a malfunction/fault
occurs in the component or the system the ECU alerts the user by glowing MIL indicator
on instrument cluster. ECU also does the following:

Stores a DTC in its memory (indicates the faulty component/system).

Stores a context frame (list of parameters indicating the operating condition during the
faultgeneration) in its memory.

When the malfunction poses a threat to the vehicle, the ECU with its control algorithms
operates the vehicle in Limp Home Mode (safe mode). This protects the component from
damage with some degradation in performance of the vehicle.

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107

Dr Shadakshari R Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-107