CHAPTER 4

Methods of Data Collection

 Outline
 Data Types and source
 Data Collection Strategies
 Quantitative and Qualitative Data
 Tools/Methods for Collecting Data
 Selection of Appropriate Methods of Data
Collection
 Ethical Considerations
 4.0 Introduction

 The task of data collection begins when research

problem has been defined and research design
has been set out for the study.
 The methods of collecting primary and
secondary data differ since primary data is to be
originally collected, while in the case of
secondary data, the data collection is simply a
compilation from the available published
source(s).
 4.1. Data Types and source

Source of Data:
Statistical data may be obtained from two sources, namely,
primary and secondary sources.
 Primary data: data measured or collected by the
investigator or the user directly from the source. Primary
sources are sources that can supply first hand information
for immediate user.
 Secondary data: When an investigator uses data, which
have already been collected by others, such data are called
secondary data. Data gathered or compiled from
published and unpublished sources.
 4.2. Qualitative vs Quantitative Data

 There are three main categories of primary data

collection: qualitative, and quantitative.
 The method of collecting qualitative data (description
of meanings rather than statistical inferences) explores
attitudes, behaviour and experiences through methods
such as observation, interviews or focus groups.
 The method of collecting quantitative data generates
statistics (rather than meaning) through the use of
large-scale survey research, using methods such as
questionnaires or structured interviews.
 4.2 Qualitative vs Quantitative (cont.)

Qualitative Quantitative

Data involves “words” Data involves “numbers”.

Research is inductive Research is deductive

Researcher part of the situation or

Researcher an objective observer.
problem.

Interpretive analysis Use of statistical analysis

Provide a depth and richness of data Allows for generalisation

 4.3. Tools for Collecting Data

4.3.1. Primary data collection Tools

 Illustration of the most common primary data collection types
 Tool 1: Observation

 A technique that involves systematically selecting,

watching and recording behaviour and
characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.
 See what is happening
 traffic patterns
 land use patterns
 layout of city and rural areas
 quality of housing
 condition of roads
 conditions of buildings
 who goes to a health clinic
 Tool 1: Observation..(Cont’d)

Observation is Helpful when:

 need direct information

 trying to understand ongoing behavior
 there is physical evidence, products, or outputs
than can be observed.
 need to provide alternative when other data
collection is infeasible or inappropriate.
 Tool 1: Observation..(Cont’d)

Types of Observation
 Structured: determine, before the observation,
precisely what will be observed before the
observation
 Unstructured: select the method depending
upon the situation with no pre-conceived ideas
or a plan on what to observe.
 Semi-structured: a general idea of what to
observe but no specific plan
 Tool 2: Survey Method

 Survey is a structured way of collecting standardized

information from individuals using a questionnaire.
 Basically 4 types of survey are used by researches:
Personal Interview (face to face)
Mail survey
Telephone survey
Internet (on-line) survey
 Tool 2: Survey Method (cont’d)

Personal Interview (face to face)

 Personal interview consists of

 administering structured questionnaires where
trained interviewers ask fixed choice questions
in a consistent format. By questionnaires.
 Personal Interview (face to
face) (cont.)

Personal Interview (face to face) (cont.)

Tips to ensure reliable, credible and unbiased responses:

 Must be well-organised and knowledgeable in the
subject
 Should ask the same question without change in wording
 Should explain the purpose of the research to
respondents.
 Personal Interview (face to face)
(cont.)

 Should ensure that each question is understood by all

the respondents
 Should write down the responses in a standardized
form
 Should try to extract the unbiased response
 Should be aware of the impact of his or her
behaviour on the response
 Mail Survey

 Most popular method

 Uses envelop and stamp, and self-addressed stamped
return envelop
 Enables you to choose a large sample
 Mail Survey (cont.)

Advantages:
 Low cost
 Convenience
 No bias responses
 Sampling–internal link
Disadvantages:
 Very low response rate
 Ability of respondent to answer survey
 Telephone Survey

 Interviewer collects the relevant information

from the target respondents through telephone
conversation.
 In a telephone survey, the interviewer collects the
relevant information from the target respondents
through telephone conversation.
 Telephone Survey (cont.)

Helpful tips to locate the respondent:

 Repeat calls might be necessary if the respondents
work in organizations and the only channel to reach
them is through their secretaries
 As the researcher may not know the name and
designation of the respondents, there is every
possibility of interviewing the wrong person
 Telephone Survey (cont.)

Making them agree to take part before the conversation:

 The purpose of the call should be stated clearly to the
respondents just like the introductory letter of a postal
questionnaire.
 Generally, respondents listen to the introduction
before they decide to participate or refuse.
 The researcher should motivate the respondents in the
right way if they raise objections about why they
could not participate in the survey.
 Telephone Survey (cont.)

Advantages:
 It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method
 It is faster than other methods of survey. It is a quick
way of obtaining the information.
 It is relatively cheaper.
 It can cover reasonably large numbers of people or
organisations with wide geographic coverage.
 Telephone Survey (cont.)

 High-response rate—keep going till the required

number
 Recall is easy; call-backs are simple and economical
 Interviewer can explain requirements more easily
 Replies can be recorded without causing
embarrassment to respondents
 Telephone Survey (cont.)

Disadvantages:
 This kind of survey is often connected with selling.
 The questionnaire must be short and questions must be
simple and straightforward, otherwise respondents may
refuse to answer them.
 Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
 Repeat calls are inevitable—average 2.5 calls to get
someone.
 Telephone Survey (cont.)

 Time is wasted.
 Respondent has little time to think before answering
each question over the phone.
 Too many questions or disturbance in the telephone
connection may cause irritation to the respondents.
 Not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
 Internet (on-line) Survey

 The questionnaire can be distributed as

 mail messages through attachment or
 posted as World Wide Web forms in the internet or
 distributed via publicly available computers in
high-traffic areas.
 Internet (on-line) Survey (cont.)

Advantages:
 Cost saving
 Ease of editing/analysis
 Faster transmission time
 Easy use of pre-letters
 Higher response rate
 Potentially quicker response time with wider
magnitude of coverage
 Internet (on-line) Survey (cont.)

Disadvantages:
 Sample demographic limitations
 Lower levels of confidentiality
 Layout and presentation issues
 Additional orientation/instructions
 Comparison among different survey
methods
Cost Mail Telephonic Internet Personal interview
survey survey survey
Cost Often lowest Moderate Moderate Usually highest
Ability to probe No personal No personal No personal Greatest opportunity for
contact or contact or contact or observation, building
observation observation observation rapport and additional
probing

Respondent's Yes Perhaps, but Yes Perhaps, if interview

ability to usually no time is prearranged with
complete at respondent
own
convenience

Interview bias No Some, No Greatest chance

perhaps due
to voice
inflection
 Comparison among different survey
methods
Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet Personal interview
survey survey
Ability to decide who Least Some No Greatest
actually responds to
the questions

Complex questions Least Somewhat Least More suitable

suitable suitable suitable

Visual aids Little No High Greatest opportunity

opportunity opportunity opportunity

Potential negative ‘Junk mail’ ‘Junk calls’ No Invasion of privacy

respondent reaction
 Comparison among different survey methods

Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet Personal

survey survey interview
respondent reaction Least Some in the Least Greatest
‘Junk mail’ ‘Junk selection of
calls’ Invasion of time to call
privacy Interviewer
control over
interview
environment

Time lag between Greatest Least Greatest May be

soliciting considered if a
and receiving large
response area is involved
 Comparison among different survey
methods
Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet survey Personal
survey interview
Suitable Simple, Some opportunity Open-ended Greatest
types of mostly for open-ended questions especially opportunity for
questions dichotomous Questions if the interview is open-ended
(yes/no) and especially recorded High questions
multiple if the interview is opportunity for open-
choice recorded ended questions

Requirement Least Medium Least Greatest

for technical
skills in
conducting
interview

Response Low Usually high Low High

rate
 Tool 3: In-Depth Interview

 A qualitative data tool that involves conducting

intensive individual interviews with a small number
of respondents to explore their perspectives on a
particular idea, programme or situation.
 Often semi-structured
 Used to explore complex issues in depth
 In-Depth Interview (cont.)

Limitations and pitfalls:

 Biased due to their stake in the programme

 Must be appropriately trained
 Generalisations about the results usually could not be
made
 Can be expensive, labour intensive, and time
consuming
 Tool 4: Focus Group Discussion

 Type of qualitative research where small homogenous

groups of people are brought together to informally discuss
specific topics under the guidance of a moderator.
 Researchers can record focus groups for further review and
analysis.

Advantage:-Can be conducted relatively quickly and easily; may take

less staff time than in-depth or in-person interviews; allow flexibility to
make changes in process and questions; can explore different
perspectives.
Challenge: Analysis is time consuming; participants not be representative
of population, possibly biasing the data; group may be influenced by
moderator or dominant group members.
 Focus Group Process
Phase Action
1 Opening Ice-breaker; explain purpose; ground rules;
introductions
2 Warm-up Relate experience; stimulate group interaction; start
with least threatening and simplest questions.
3 Main Move to more threatening or sensitive and complex
body questions; elicit deep responses; connect emergent
data to complex, broad participation.
4 Closure End with closure-type questions; summarize and
refine; present theories, etc; invite final comments or
insights; thank participants.
Group discussion
 6-10 participants
 Moderator-led
 90 minutes-2 hours
 Tool 6: Expert Judgment

 Use of experts, one-on-one or as a panel

E.g., Government task forces, Advisory Groups

 Can be structured or unstructured

-Issues in selecting experts
 Selecting Experts

 Establish criteria for selecting experts not only on

recognition as expert but also based on:
 areas of expertise
 diverse perspectives
 diverse political views
 diverse technical expertise
 4.3.2 Collection of Secondary Data

 Refers to information that has been already

gathered by someone (individual or agencies) and
readily available to the researcher.
 Represents information that has already been
collected, structured, and analysed by another
researcher.
 If you are using books, research papers, statistics,
survey results that were created by someone else,
they are considered to be secondary data.
Eg. Census data, stock prices data, employment and salaries
data
 4.3.2 Collection of Secondary Data
(cont.)

Secondary data is important for any research due to the

following reasons:
 Entirely appropriate and wholly adequate to draw
conclusions and answer the question or solve the
problem.
 Far cheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain
primary data.
 Time involved in searching secondary sources is much
less.
 4.3.2 Collection of Secondary
Data (cont.)

 Can yield more accurate data than that obtained

through primary research.
 Plays an important role in the exploratory phase of
the research when the task at hand is to define the
research problem and to generate hypotheses
 Data can be extremely useful both in defining the
population and in structuring the sample to be
taken.
 4.3.2 Collection of Secondary
Data (cont.)

Secondary data should possess the following

characteristics:
 Reliability of data
 Suitability of data
 Adequacy of data
 4.4 Selection of Appropriate
Methods of Data Collection

It depends of the following condition:-

 Nature, scope and object of enquiry.

 Availability of funds
 Time factor
 Quality required
 4.5 Use Triangulation to Increase
Accuracy of Data

Use of Triangulation technique to Increase Accuracy of

Data. Such techniques include:-
 Triangulation of methods
 Collection of same information using different methods
 Triangulation of sources
 collection of same information from a variety of
sources.
 Triangulation of evaluators
 collection of same information by more than one
evaluator
 4.6 Ethical Considerations

 The researcher should be concerned about

whether one’s procedures of collecting
information are likely to cause any physical or
emotional harm to the participants.
 These harm may be caused by;
 Violating participants’ right to privacy by posing
sensitive questions or by gaining access to personal
data;
 4.6 Ethical Considerations
(cont.)

 Observing the behaviour of participants without

their being aware;
 Making public personal information which
participants would want to keep private; and
 Failing to observe/respect certain cultural values,
traditions or taboos valued by the participants.
 4.6 Ethical Considerations
(cont.)

Recommended methods for dealing with these issues:

 Obtaining the respondent’s consent before the study

begins;
 Not exploring sensitive issues before a good
relationship has been established;
 Ensuring the confidentiality; and
 Learning enough about the culture of participants.