POLISH HYPERBARIC RESEARCH 2(67)2019

Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society

Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy

CONTEXT ANALYSIS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIVING TECHNOLOGIES

Ryszard Kłos
Polish Naval Academy, Department of Underwater Work Technology in Gdynia, Poland

ABSTRACT
The previous article described a new approach methodology1 for work on the development of technology for the use of the SCR CRABE SCUBA2 type diving
apparatus. However, after its publication numerous questions emerged regarding the genesis of the research undertaken, also from foreign partners using
the same rebreather. The work on changing the technology of use was preceded by analyses, which were available only to people involved in the decision-
making process. Demonstrating all the details of the decision-making process may be tedious, but failing to present them at all might raise justified doubts
about the advisability of conducting a long-term research cycle.
This article only presents preliminary analyses. The necessity to perform them resulted from the specific requirements for military technologies3 which, as
broadly as possible, should be knowledge-based. The knowledge-based approach by its very nature allows continuous improvement of the adequacy of the
predictions made, the estimation of the level of risk when diagnosing deviations from the repeatability or precision of the model, and the possibility of adapting
the technology to the changing requirements of the user resulting from tactical considerations of its use.
Keywords: Semi-Closed Circuit Rebreather, modelling the process of decompression.

ARTICLE INFO

PolHypRes 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2 pp. 7 - 58

ISSN: 1734-7009 eISSN: 2084-0535
DOI: 10.2478/phr-2019-0005 Original article
Pages: 52, figures: 1, tables: 5
Submission date: 13.02.2019 r.
page www of the periodical: [Link] Acceptance for print: 20.04.2019 r.

Publisher
Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

INTRODUCTION the diver. If a diver is well-trained and can withstand

a longer period of time with his breath held, then the
The methods of acquiring knowledge, differences effectiveness analysis for the diving process in order to
in the analytical and holistic approach to problem solving harvest sponges shows that he should be additionally
and the process approach to developing technologies were equipped with a net for collecting sponges.
outlined in the previous article [1]. These issues will not be The feasibility study shows that sponges are
repeated or further developed in this paper4. unlikely to grow close to the shore and that the
effectiveness of swimming far from the shore is unlikely to
be acceptable, thus it is necessary to ensure that the diver
DIVING PROCESS OBJECTIVE is able to travel by boat. When focusing only on the diving
system, the boat should be considered as an element of the
In each project there should be defined system environment, i.e. the context surrounding the
assumptions concerning it’s objective; propositions of the diving system under consideration. It should be noted that
process used to achieve it5; specification6 of the minimum in this context, there are also other elements that affect the
and optimal structure for the proposed system that can diving system for sponge harvesting, which should be
ensure consistent, stable and effective implementation of taken into account in the feasibility study, such as market
the proposed process, taking into account the impact of the demand or the threat of a shark attack.
process on the environment and the impact of the Subsequent risk analyses, technical feasibility or
environment on the system and the occurring process. economic viability studies may relate to the use of an air
Initially, only processes in which the diver's body pump or air compressor, an air supply system with or
was exposed to pressure were considered as dives, while without filtration, the use of an air supply regulator, the
dives using single-atmospheric diving suits were use of a mask, fins, access to health care, social security or
considered as the use of an underwater vehicle. Now, due pension systems. Defining the objective to be achieved by
to the required training and the necessity to carry out tasks an established process can thus be used to establish the
autonomously, the term diver is also extended to structure of the system that supports it, taking into account
aquanauts using a single-atmospheric suit. the environmental impact on the system and the impact of
Different goals can be set for the diving process. the system on the environment.
Depending on the expected end goal of the diving process, For the division proposed here, the
an appropriate system should be established which is distinguishing feature of these types of dives is precisely
capable of ensuring the sustainability of the readiness to the definition of their different objectives. Extreme dives
achieve the diving objectives. Different subdivisions can be are usually carried out in order to break records, but they
applied according to the purpose of the diving process, for can be a part of a rescue operation or a quickly changing
instance: tactical scenario for a combat situation. Typical examples
 extreme of extreme divers include free diving where a breath
 sports holding diver is dragged to an extreme depth riding on
 recreational a weighted sledge, or alternatively where the diver reaches
 technical the desired depth under his/her own effort using fins
 professional (either after being initially pushed to a certain depth by the
 rescue second diver or reaching it by his/her self). Sport dives, in
 military turn, are carried out for competitive purposes. For
 etc. example, underwater spear fishing championships
The minimum system capable of ensuring the previously consisted of catching fish in a defined time,
continuous maintenance of the diving process conducted though nowadays photographic competitions are more
for a specified purpose is merely a theoretical common. Recreational dives are carried out for pleasure.
construction. System minimisation most often is applied in Technical diving originated from the desire to explore
extreme dives, which are conducted in order to set greater depths, and for a greater durations than had
a record. Under these conditions, the usual main previously been possible, the achievement of this goal
assumption is to enhance the system with minimum requiring the use of special, complicated equipment.
security measures or ensure redundancy7 of some of the Technical dives are often implemented, as well as extreme
elements of the system8. The elements that go beyond the dives, to break records of depth, time spent underwater, or
minimum structure of the system to achieve the objective exploring some areas, such as wrecks or caves.
of the diving process are the result of a risk analysis and Professional diving involves the use of a variety of
feasibility study. technical equipment for conducting commercial
Illustratively, the minimisation of the diving underwater activities. A specific type of professional diving
system can be analysed using the example of dives involves operations to save lives. The rescue of property is
performed by sponge divers described in historical travel part of typical commercial professional diving. Life-saving
books. dives are characterised by different dynamics and
The minimum system needed to carry out the determination from other types of diving. Moreover, they
diving process consists of only a trained diver. The element use other procedures and carry additional equipment for
of the diving training system can be divided into two the victims. Technical dives have emerged from military
subsystems: swimming lessons and training in diving dives, but their purpose is non-military. The objectives of
whilst holding one’s breath. However, the feasibility study military dives may vary, for example in combat dives the
shows that a trained diver will work more effectively if he objectives are usually different from MCM dives9.
is equipped with a sponge cutter which, according to the According to the aim of the diving process,
risk analysis, can also be used to assist in the protection of different approaches are used to build a system ensuring
that the process runs smoothly, efficiently and safely.
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

During underwater works, both divers and diving for an epidemiological risk, for a selected population
supervisors prefer to carry out decompression according meeting the special requirements set in medical standards,
to low-risk regimes10, therefore a conservatism function similarly as in normal procedures of work protection,
has been introduced into decompression programmes, divers must give informed consent to derogations and the
using e.g. the method of calculation for elevated inert gas risk incurred should be compensated both in terms of
content compared to actual, assuming an increased depth health protection and financial compensation.
compared to the actual depth, assuming longer than actual Rescue dives are characterised not only by an
time at depth, or using an asymmetric model for increase in the risk of an occurrence of the DCI symptoms,
saturation/desaturation of theoretical tissues11. Some but also by the risk of a technical accident due to the failure
programmes use more than one of these methods or of the equipment used17. Increasing the risk of DCI is only
a combination of them to increase decompression safety. allowed when directly saving lives 18 Hence, most often in
These methods are called conservative methodologies or rescue operations conservatism is maintained at the level
are referred to simply as conservatism12. Conservatism is typical for professional diving. This applies of course to the
often specified by indicating how much longer and deeper group of strictly selected and trained divers secured by
the decompression profile should be compared to the specialists in various fields, needed in the rescue
actual one. Sometimes you can find a numerical expression operation.
for conservatism, e.g.: in percentages related to the Military dives are characterised by different
saturation gradient13. Diving technologies may be levels of risk of DCI. For EOD dives19 the same rules apply
categorised according to their level of conservatism. as for rescue dives. For MCM dives, depending on the
In the case of extreme dives, the technology of importance of the mission, it is possible to approve the
diving is chosen individually for the diver. Most often the threat of the occurrence of DCI symptoms from the level of
concept of conservatism for this type of dives does not EOD dives to combat missions SRT20, for which the typical
occur, as the typical practice is to exceed the typical safety DCI threat is determined at the level21 of 5% in terms of
limits to which conservatism refers. The occurrence of estimation, as for the epidemiological threat, for
a diving accident is considered to be part of extreme diving a selected population meeting the special requirements set
and the security measures are related to the development out in medical standards22.
of treatment systems as close as possible to the place This shows that military diving technologies
where extreme diving is organised. In technical diving, should be based as broadly as possible on knowledge.
technology is often dedicated to the task and the current Other technologies can be bought. Even with technical
advancement of the divers’ training. Often technology, and dives, broader but available knowledge is sufficient to
especially decompression schedules, are selected for the make decisions about the risks to be taken, which is
current course of diving by computer systems supporting enabled by the algorithm embedded in the computer
the process of diving, taking into account changes not only memory to support decision-making about the
in depth and time of stay, but also variations in decompression process used.
temperature, gas consumption or changes in conservatism The project concerns the MCM diving technology
settings. Technical dives do not cross the threshold of zero with the use of an independent diving apparatus with
conservatism, as is the case with extreme dives. a semi-closed circuit of the breathing mix - SCR CRABE
A proportion of technical diving is scientific diving SCUBA, carried out in a wide range of depths, as an element
conducted in order to get to know the water environment, of the mine warfare system. Dives should be conducted
both animate and inanimate. Due to the fact that the diving from the surface to a depth of about 80 mH2O and to cover
is performed by scientists, also advanced in age, different depth ranges oxygen for decompression and
conservatism is selected for them individually at an various nitro-oxygen mixtures will be used, to a depth23 of
elevated level. 50 mH O, whereas at a deeper level helium-based24
In sports diving, the level of conservatism mixtures will be used. The context of the use of diving
exceeds the typical conservatism level of 30%, which is the technologies as elements of the mine warfare system
limit for diving with safe, albeit strenuous, decompression. seems to be particularly important. The aim should be to
It is consensually agreed and is identical for all diving make the technology's conservatism as effective as
participants. The differences lie in the way of preparing for possible and to create a risk within the limits of25 (1;3)%
the sports diving process, which constitutes a hidden in terms of its estimation, as for an epidemiological threat,
handicap of individual competitors. for a selected population meeting the special requirements
In the case of recreational diving, the level of set out in medical standards.
conservatism is selected in such a way that the risk of
diving-related illnesses DCI14 be lower than 1% in PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTEXT
accordance with the estimation as for the epidemiological
threat for the entire population admitted to diving by The basic requirements for conducting diving
checking compliance with medical standards [2]. Part of operations using self-contained diving devices result from
recreational diving is rehabilitation diving, less frequently the risk of decompression sickness DCS26 and central
practiced in the form of medical rehabilitation15, and more oxygen toxicity27 CNSyn.
commonly in the form of social rehabilitation16. Among the basic decompression parameters, the
In professional diving, medical standards are following assumptions for exposure can be distinguished:
usually more elaborate and rigorous than in recreational  maximum planned depth of hyperbaric exposure,
diving. Conservatism is often set at the same level as for  exposure time at maximum depth,
recreational diving, but no longer applies to the entire
 breathing mix used,
population that can dive, but to a selected population that
 diver’s predisposition to undergo a hyperbaric
meets higher requirements than the average individual in
exposure.
the professional diving population. If, for professional
dives, the risk of DCI is higher than 1% in the estimation as
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

Usually, the depth H is a complicated functional The Polish Navy has a long tradition of using oxygen
dependence on the time of exposure t: H = f(t). H = f(t) decompression starting from 15 mH2O, but in order to
can be approximated by a pair of parameters: maximum maintain interoperability in diving with SCR CRABE
depth of exposure H and time of stay at maximum SCUBA, oxygen decompression was planned from 12
depth t(H ). An extremely important parameter for mH2O, however, the breathing space of the diving
planning effective, safe exposure and decompression is the apparatus will be ventilated with oxygen as early as 15
oxygen partial pressure p , which is typically a function of mH2O. Decompression can also be accelerated by using
the exposure and decompression times t: p = f(t). During oxygen-enriched gas mixtures. The mechanism is similar
descent and stay at the bottom, it is most common to use and the use of such mixtures can begin before the
a single operational mixture to supply the diving transition to oxygen decompression. However, it is
apparatus, but depending on its design, it can maintain the possible to use a mixture other than one enriched with
partial pressure of oxygen p within very narrow or very oxygen. For example, by substituting Trimix with Nitrox30
wide ranges. In such a case, even at constant external pressure, Nitrox
Planning to perform long-term intensive work in will elute helium from tissues and replace it with nitrogen,
diving operations outside the saturation zone is i.e. the replacement of the breathing mix will cause the
troublesome due to the lack of possibility to design phenomena of isobaric decompression. It should be noted,
adequate decompression [3]. Strenuous work induces the however, that nitrogen is much better soluble in tissues
need for an adequate response from the diver's body. Most containing fat than helium, so planning a long period of
often, the response is to include anaerobic changes causing isobaric decompression if the breathing mix is changed
the formation of lactic acid in the muscles, which by from Trimix to Nitrox may prolong the decompression
acidifying the blood causes a decrease in the efficiency of process instead of accelerating it. If this is not taken into
oxygen transportation through haemoglobin [4]. account, symptoms of decompression sickness DCS may
These effects differ in individuals θ and for one occur. Such a mechanism of the decompression sickness is
and the same individual strongly depend on the current known as DCS induced by the counter-diffusion process
training θ = f(t), preparation28 or even attitude to diving. [5-7].
It is difficult to take some individual parameters into The diver's predisposition to hyperbaric
account when planning adequate decompression for the exposure constitutes a complex of issues that may include:
population. During saturated dives time is given for  physical build,
stabilisation prior to the decompression process. This time  physical and mental state prior to diving,
depends on the type of work performed earlier and can  mental build,
amount to up to 2 days.  the current state of training,
As mentioned above, with a simplified approach  the scope of the hygiene rules applied, etc.
to the decompression planning process, two parameters In the past, diver's physical build was a basic
are used: the maximum depth of exposure reachedH parameter allowing him/her to perform military service as
and the exposure time at maximum depth t(H ), a diver or to work as a professional diver. This was related
calculated from the beginning of the immersion to the to the types of diving suits. Too tall a diver did not fit in
initiation of the decompression process. The maximum a suit, while for a short diver a reefed suit posed a threat.
exposure depth H may be reached just for a moment 29 For example, a crack in the crotch belt in a classic suit
with the decompression process starting from the moment caused the escape of the helmet and the inability to release
when the pressure can only decrease; except for the air from the suit leading to a diver being thrown up to the
required stops at decompression stations. If the stops at surface or hanging in the depths on a diving hose jammed
the decompression stations become longer, the with underwater obstacles. These days of course it is
decompression schedule may also change. This way of possible to produce a suit adapted to the diver. In the past,
planning the decompression process is based on the worst a strong body build was required for a classic diver,
case scenario selection procedure. This increases the because the equipment worn on the surface weighed just
conservatism of the adopted decompression procedure in under 100 kg and required sufficient physical strength to
a variable way, depending on the diving conditions and the put it on and enter the water. Nowadays, the equipment
diving supervisor's approach to decompression planning. and devices for professional divers are much lighter, but
It should be noted that an unjustified increase in still require considerable physical strength to put them on
conservatism may result in inefficiency in the diving and move around outside the aquatic environment31. Also,
process due to the significant oversizing of the performing underwater works, although carried out with
decompression process. In accordance with the tradition the use of tools and various types of equipment, often
of the Polish Navy, the project was based on the selection requires considerable physical effort, so that some works
of the decompression process using the worst-case have to be performed only under saturation conditions.
scenario method. The use of semi-closed-circuit breathing
The decompression and compression processes apparatus requires certain predispositions. The
may also occur at constant pressure when the composition physiological parameters HF32 which influence the level of
of the breathing mix changes [3]. Isobaric decompression diving safety, are indicated here with the symbol θ. For
processes are accompanied by oxygen decompression. SCR CRABE SCUBA this is primarily the breathing
Replacement of the gas mixture with pure oxygen results module33 ε.
in the washing out of inert gases by oxygen from the The causes of certain phenomena34, are not
tissues. Oxygen is removed from the body, mainly through always known and should therefore be the starting point
metabolic consumption. Isobaric decompression occurs at for further scientific research. It is commonly believed that
oxygen decompression stations. Due to its toxicity, oxygen older divers require more conservative decompression
can only be used at relatively shallow decompression procedures, but quite a large percentage of divers over 45
stations. It is accepted around the world that oxygen years of age exhibit a significant increase in individual
decompression can be started from a depth of 12 mH2O. immunity to strenuous decompression. This phenomenon
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

was observed during monitoring of the formation of the energy load. It is important to provide appropriate
free gaseous phase in veins during experimental dives, micronutrients and vitamins in their natural form rather
although earlier cases of individual immunity to difficult than in the form of dietary supplements. Dietary
decompression had been noted35. supplements or medicines may cause the presence of
This phenomenon does not occur only as an condensation nuclei in the blood and thus increase
individual property θ , but it can change with the current susceptibility to easier formation of the free gaseous phase
psychophysical state36 of the diver. The influence of during decompression. However, solutions to this problem
attitude or determination is not only observed when will not constitute partial objectives of the project and
diving. There are many reliable attitude-related events, need to be developed within the framework of other
such as the occurrence of the phenomenon of imaginary activities.
pregnancy in humans and animals. It is believed that the The basic variants of decompression
diver is built up in 80% of his/her mental structure, assumptions may include:
especially the ability to operate effectively in stress and  effort,
resistance to panic37. There is also a conviction that  thermal comfort.
attitude is correlated with immunity to central oxygen It is necessary to always take into account the
toxicity CNSyn. It was also attempted to promote the view possibility of additional, unforeseen work, for example
that deep knowledge-based consciousness is related to changes of the hydrological situation
a contribution to facilitating the development of anxiety necessitating work against the water current. In addition,
leading to panic in stressful situations. Indeed, it is the effort expended can lead to an imbalance in thermal
observed that less educated divers show greater comfort. For example, if divers have prepared themselves
resistance, but once the fear barrier is broken, the to expend light effort in cold water by wearing
development of stressful situations leading to the appropriately selected thermals, they may overheat in
emergence of panic is extremely violent. conditions of intense effort. Thermal comfort can also be
Experienced dive supervisors try to gain the trust lost by crossing the thermocline48 or as a result of
of divers to become their trustees, which makes it easier prolonging the stay under water. Previously performed
for them to assess the current psychophysical condition of effort, lack of sleep, slight infections, overcooling or
the diver. When assessing this state, it is important not to overheating are often the cause of faster hypothermia in
underestimate any symptoms, not even minor ones. It is the diver. Overheating usually occurs before diving49,
good practice for the supervisor to have eye contact with which later results in a more rapid cooling under water.
the diver38 during the preparation for diving, with This is especially relevant to a standby diver prepared for
simultaneous examination of the state of muscle tension, immersion and waiting at the waiting position, therefore,
body tremor39 or evaluation of the heart rate40 etc. It is it is necessary to pay attention to his/her protection
important to check the coordination of movement once the against overheating, as during the rescue operation the
equipment is put on41. diver may become so exhausted that he or she will only
It is important to detect signs of fatigue, early increase the risk.
signs of illness, stress, etc., as they have a direct effect on The effect of excessive, long effort during diving
the safety of decompression. or before diving on decompression has already been
When repeating a dive, it is important to note the highlighted. Thermal comfort also has a significant impact
saturation of tissue with inert gases42 remaining after the on the safety of decompression. During decompression,
previous decompression. Lowering the pressure value, as the state of saturation with gases is maintained in
is the case during flights by airplanes or transport a metastable equilibrium. Each temperature change causes
helicopters, may cause a serious imbalance in the pressure the disturbance of this equilibrium. Both, cooling during
of gas in tissues resulting in the occurrence of symptoms of diving and surface decompression in a warm
decompression sickness (DCS). The project did not include decompression chamber, as well as overheating during
any studies on the possibility of cyclic dives43, repeated44 diving and decompression under cold conditions cause
dives or achieving a state of gas balance between tissues disturbances of this balance, which may lead to the
and breathing atmosphere45 on the surface46, but during occurrence of symptoms of decompression sickness DCS.
the progress of works such studies may be conducted. The main variants of conducting decompression
In addition to strength training, ensuring good include:
physical fitness, and flexibility training, ensuring good  response to the contamination of the breathing
muscle stretching47, it is also important to carry out mix,
adaptive training. Adaptive training is aimed at preparing  reaction to deviations in the composition of the
the diver for hyperbaric conditions and decompression. breathing mix,
Accustoming the body by clearing the path of gas exchange  acceleration of the decompression process,
between tissues and respiratory atmosphere contributes  interrupting the decompression process,
to the safety of diving. In the design of the project it will be  execution of surface and compensatory
important to define the scope of such training and decompression,
guidelines for strength or flexibility training.  accumulation of decompression time at deeper
Hygiene of life and work of a diver is a broad stations,
concept, as are the aforementioned complications  extension of the decompression process
resulting from making strenuous effort prior to diving. An Contamination of the breathing mixture is always
important element is to undergo scheduled strength, undesirable. The problems related to such contamination
endurance, stretching or adaptive training. One of the have been previously described and will not be analysed in
important elements is the aforementioned care for proper this study [8]. In regeneration devices, carbon dioxide
rest and anti-stress training. During training, a well- (CO2) retention and dust emitted by the filling of the
balanced diet is crucial, limiting the possibility of absorbent are frequent hazards. Exhaled carbon dioxide
accumulation of adipose tissue, but ensuring an adequate
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

(CO2) may accumulate in the respiratory space as a result assumed that the diver will breathe with pure oxygen.
of an absorbent either being of a poor quality, not changing Nowadays, high purity oxygen52, can be used because it is
the medium frequently enough , or the effect of available at a reasonable price, but such a gas allows for
‘channelling’ where the breathing medium slips through decompression in open-circuit apparatuses53. In diving
the filter bed without coming in to contact with adequate devices with a semi-closed circuit there are problems with
amounts of the absorbent, etc. It is advisable to seek effective ventilation of the breathing space with oxygen
cooperation with a supplier who guarantees that the and washing out from the body the inert gases
required quality of the sorbent will be maintained. accumulated in the circuit of the breathing mix inhaled by
Furthermore, adequate laboratory control over the diver. Therefore, the issues of ventilation must take
the stored sorbent should be maintained. These issues will into account these phenomena and the assumptions
not be part of the project, but the established SOP related to the effectiveness of the ventilation process must
procedures50 resulting from previous work will be be validated during experimental dives. The issues of SCR
maintained and revised as necessary [9]. Sodium lime CRABE SCUBA's respiratory ventilation with both premix
dusting is associated with its form. Sometimes it is tableted and oxygen are key issues for the project and are thus the
and highly resistant to abrasion and breakage, other times main focus of research. In the project it was necessary to
it is loosely formed in various extrusion shapes [10]. take into consideration:
A non-dusting form has also been introduced  time of breathing from the rebreather on the
where the sorbent is stabilized in a substrate made of surface before the start of the diving process,
plastic. However, the most common form available in the  effectiveness of ventilation of the breathing space
market is crushed lime which has been sorted (in terms of with fresh premix during the process of descent,
size of granules) on screens. Such a form is susceptible to  the influence of body cleansing from inert gases54
dusting the particles due to mechanical shocks, e.g. during on the composition of the breathing mix inhaled
transport or packing of scrubbers. For this reason, the by a diver,
sorbent should be dedusted initially on the screens before  effectiveness of washing the respiratory space
packing into scrubbers and then on the screens the with a fresh premix during the stay on the
scrubber should be air washed. During transport of the
prepared apparatuses, the lime in the scrubber may be bottom55,
subject to shock and crushing. This phenomenon is  effectiveness of washing the respiratory space
accompanied not only by dusting, but also by the formation with fresh premix before starting the ascent
of passages enabling the regenerated breathing mix to pass process,
through the scrubber without sufficient purification. It is  necessity to wash the respiratory space with
therefore necessary to ensure careful transportation of the fresh premix at decompression stations,
rebreathers. Soaking the internal layers of the breathing  effectiveness of the process of exchanging the
tubes can be a protection against dust by forming a water breathing mix with oxygen before commencing
film on the internal surface of the tube to which the dust oxygen decompression,
emitted by the filter can adhere. CO2 sorbents are usually  necessity to wash the breathing space with fresh
a mixture of highly caustic hydroxides and can cause micro oxygen at oxygen decompression stations.
burns in the respiratory tract. Due to the possibility of The ventilation model of the breathing space of
lumping, the sorbent is stored in a dried form, which has the SCR CRABE SCUBA is the main basis for planning safe
a lower CO2 chemisorption efficiency. That is why before hyperbaric exposures and subsequent decompression. The
use it should be moistened by performing several evaluation of the effectiveness of the ventilation process
exhalations into the scrubber. Soaking the tubes also should be continued during training on a hyperbaric
creates an environment to activate the filling of the simulator, where reliable data from the diving process can
scrubber. Partial depletion of the sorbent can occur when be collected. The database of conducted dives provides the
it is stored in partly unsealed containers or a filter. basis for progress building through knowledge and an
Additionally, insufficient water tightness of the device may important element of diving safety monitoring, on which
cause the formation of a highly corrosive hydroxide the periodic safety analysis of diving operations should be
solution during diving, which in turn may cause severe based. The effectiveness of flushing the breathing space of
burns to the respiratory tract. a diving apparatus is an important element in assessing the
Carbon dioxide accumulated in the circulating training of divers. The ability to use the procedures for
breathing mix causes a number of adverse effects, such as: flushing the breathing space of the diving apparatus should
toxic effects, increased respiratory action, constriction of be periodically checked during mandatory training on
blood vessels51 in the periphery of the body, relaxation of a hyperbaric simulator.
blood vessels in the brain causing an increase in cerebral The most common procedure used to accelerate
blood flow, which leads to a greater sensitivity to the the decompression process is oxygen decompression. It is
central form of central oxygen toxicity CNSyn [4]. commonly believed that such an acceleration constitutes
The impact of a general change in the breathing a 2.5-fold reduction of decompression time using an
mix composition on decompression was discussed in the operating mixture [11-12]. For safety reasons, this
context of isobaric decompression and counter-diffusion parameter should be determined for a specific case of its
phenomena. When designing hyperbaric exposures, use or rounded up to simplify the system56. However,
especially decompression schedules, it is extremely rounding leads to less effective57 decompression
important to take into account the existing fluctuations in schedules, hence there may be a need to generate two or
the composition of the breathing mix inhaled by the diver. more tables, for example: school, training, combat used for
This is particularly important for semi-closed circuit exercises, combat used during warfare, extreme used in
rebreathers, where fresh premix is dynamically mixed anti-terrorist operations, etc., differing in the risk of an
with regenerated breathing mix. occurrence of symptoms of decompression sickness (DCS)
Even with oxygen decompression, it is never or central oxygen toxicity (CNSyn).
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

Decompression acceleration may concern If one of the above difficulties is diagnosed, the
emergency situations, such as the need to bypass some conservatism of the approach to decompression is
decompression stations in case of injury or loss of increased by using extended decompression. Extended
breathing mix. This must be combined with an appropriate decompression is based on adopting the next, longer
compensatory action. Compensatory decompression may diving time from the table for the same depth60. If two of
involve oxygen exposure in normobaric or hyperbaric the above circumstances occur, the diving time is increased
conditions, as in the case of the use of surface by moving two lines down. In the case of a greater number
decompression procedure58. Further development of this of impediments, these are not taken into account and are
issue and of the accumulation of decompression time at treated as if there were only two of them. Therefore, the
deeper stations will be discussed in the context of last two lines of the allowed stay times at the bottom, for
implementation of the decompression process. each depth appearing in the decompression table, play the
In order to increase safety, the Polish Navy role of emergency times used only in the extended
traditionally adopts several scenarios for which the decompression procedure. Attention is also paid to other
decompression process is extended59, i.e.: factors influencing the increase in the risk of occurrence of
 performance of hard work underwater by a diver, the symptoms of decompression sickness DCS tab. 1.
 diver's feeling of coldness during diving and The task of the project was to develop
decompression, technologies for point diving. This approach requires both
 when a dive is one in a series of dives, the development of diving technology with planned
 when the diver is untrained or has an individual effort61, posing a potential risk of developing symptoms of
predisposition to develop decompression decompression sickness DCS, and technology taking into
sickness (DCS), account the lack of any additional work by the diver, where
 when the diver is obese or his/her body weight the main problem is the risk of developing symptoms of
exceeds 80 kg., central oxygen toxicity CNSyn.
 when the diver is over 40 years of age.

Tab. 1

The main factors that can lead to decompression accidents

1. Reduced blood circulation due to: obesity, hypothermia, physiological decrease of circulatory efficiency (e.g. in
elderly people), previous cardiovascular or diving related medical conditions, mechanical pressure (e.g. by diving suit,
lack of position changes during decompression) etc.
2. Increase of carbon dioxide content in the inhaled respiratory factor or its accumulation in the body (hypercapnia)
caused, inter alia, by: the diver's poor condition, effort, occurrence of dead spaces in the diving equipment, high
density of the breathing mix, etc.
3. Considerable effort prior to diving and muscle acidification resulting from the effort. It is recommended to take
3-6 hours rest before diving (depending on the anticipated conditions of proposed dive), and an absolute prohibition
of diving by a fatigued diver.
4. Consumption of alcohol prior to diving and before decompression completion (also during compulsory rest on the
surface following diving, during isobaric surface decompression). Alcohol reduces the surface tension of the blood,
thus facilitating the formation of gas bubbles. It is recommended that 12 hours before and 12 hours after diving, divers
refrain from drinking beverages containing alcohol.
5. Dehydration (dehydration) is often trivialised as a factor that may cause decompression problems. Ignoring
dehydration can, however, lead to the occurrence of decompression problems despite adherence to other
recommendations. Most often dehydration occurs in the following cases:
− For prolonged diving in saltwater in a wetsuit. In this case, water is lost through osmosis (particularly important
when using suits with open system water heating).
− Hydrostatic pressure can cause increased diuresis.
− Overcooling of the body can cause increased diuresis.
− During breathing with a dry breathing mix, dehydration occurs as a result of evaporation.
− Caffeine, theine and alcohol cause increased diuresis.
− Some groups of drugs cause dehydration and many cause increased diuresis. Divers may only take medication under
the supervision of a doctor.
− Fear and nervous tension can cause increased diuresis.
Raising of the level of fluids in the body (rehydration) is advisable in order to increase the safety of diving. For this
purpose, it is recommended to administer mineral water, vitamin water or fruit juices in limited amounts. A diver
should drink a lot of fluids several hours before diving. The pre-diving hydration should take into account the diving
conditions. It is not always possible to pass urine freely during diving or decompression. If the diver is decompressed
in a dry chamber with the possibility of urination, fluids should be administered also during decompression.
6. Injuries such as tissue discontinuity. In the affected areas, a free gaseous phase can form, not only in the obvious
cases of pulmonary barotrauma, but also in the case of minor skin injuries.
7. Diving with symptoms of poor physical and/or mental predisposition, e.g.: symptoms of hangover, sleepiness,
fatigue, symptoms accompanying menstruation, headaches, signs of illness, etc. They reduce the concentration of
attention and thus create the possibility of a mistake, e.g. when controlling the decompression profile, measuring the
depth or time of stay, etc.
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

Tab. 1 cont.

The main factors that can lead to decompression accidents

8. The use of vitamins, anti-headache medication, oral contraceptives, stimulants or stress relievers, active plant-
based medication, e.g. herbal teas, may not be recommended before diving. One of the reasons for the harmful effects
of such agents may be "contamination" by maintaining high concentrations of chemicals in the blood. This may lead
to an easier formation of a free gas phase in the blood. Some chemicals such as alcohol (alcohol is a component of
many liquid drugs, e.g. cough syrups) cause a change in the surface tension of blood, thus facilitating the formation of
a free gas phase in the blood.
9. It is important to pay attention to various types of implants and even fillings of treated teeth. Cases of toothache
induction with wrongly fitted or wrongly selected fillings are known. In such cases, it is recommended to consult one's
doctor about the possibility of diving, and during the treatment of teeth, it is necessary to inform that diving is
practiced.

ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT decompression process64. The system may also include

procedures for decompression as for recreational divers,
In the implementation of independent dives in which will be used during training.
the marine environment by the Polish Navy, for the classic Due to the fact of development of technology for
decompression designed with decompression stations the diving process using semi-closed circuit rebreather
every 3 mH2O, the diving technology should ensure the (SCR), it should include developed and validated effective
emergency decompression process with the possibility of procedures for the process of breathing space flushing. The
having the last decompression station at a depth of technology should assume that there will be no need for
6 mH2O. Such a procedure may be useful in the case of the implementation of the breathing space flushing
changes in wave height in the diving area or in the event of process while at the bottom. However, an effective flushing
diving in locations with high average wave heights. In such procedure can always be used in the case of a suspected
a situation, the possibility of a diver remaining at the loss of control over the composition of the breathing mix
station depth of 3 mH2O is problematic. For organisational that the diver is breathing. These procedures increase the
reasons, it is best to assume that the duration of the oxygen content in the circuit and their effect on the
emergency decompression process should be the same as possibility of occurrence of central oxygen toxicity
for the basic decompression and the stay at the 6 mH2O (CNSyn) should be investigated.
station should be the sum of the stay at the 3 mH2O and An important parameter of a diving operation is
6 mH2O stations. the ability to burden the diver with work. The value of
The Polish Navy has traditionally required that workload is related to the process of ventilating the
the decompression system should permit to compensate breathing space of the rebreather, as well as to the process
for difficult decompression transition conditions, allow for of decompression and increasing risk of central oxygen
surface decompression, provide for compensatory toxicity (CNSyn). In this case, medium-heavy65 workload
decompression, etc. Such a system should consist of and rest66. have been assumed. The influence of thermal
hyperbaric procedures, including therapeutic procedures, protection of a diver on the decompression process must
and provide the required technical and medical equipment also not be overlooked.
to carry them out. The system should be supplemented Risk analysis shows the need to use emergency
with a subsystem for evacuation of injured divers to breathing subsystems. Emergency breathing systems may
a specialist hyperbaric centre or hospital. The elements of be based on the possibility of transitioning to breathing
the system securing the realisation of therapeutic from an integral cylinder set using a redundant67 breathing
processes can be borrowed or developed anew and system. This process prevents loss of control over the main
dedicated especially to the system of conducting diving respiratory system and not the loss of breathing mix
works. Due to the use of autonomous SCUBA equipment, reserve. From the perspective of planning the exposure
the system of therapeutic recompression tables TT62 process and subsequent decompression, the use of an
should provide for therapeutic procedures in case of emergency respiratory system with a different mode of
a diver being "thrown" from considerable depths action from that of the main system should take into
bypassing decompression stations and, as a result, account variations in the risk of CNSyn. If it is considered
explosive decompression. necessary to develop procedures for the use of respiratory
The use of semi-closed circuit SCR diving systems independent of the rebreather used68 account
apparatus and mixtures with increased oxygen content should also be taken of the phase of diving for which
requires the development of a recruitment process for transition to emergency decompression will be possible.
divers and maintaining those divers in good physical In order to secure the described basic and
condition. The system must take into account the health emergency processes, it is required to develop a minimal
parameters of the divers. The assumption here is that they system69 consisting of:
will be compatible with the requirements for military  procedures for qualification for diving with the
divers. Additional criteria can also be added to the intended rebreather and breathing mixtures,
qualification process63. The adopted standard of  a specially designed and validated procedure for
physiological parameters of a diver is a guideline for the basic decompression, together with the rules for
development of a procedure for the implementation of an the workload of the diver,
effective decompression process.  specially designed and validated emergency
A higher level of risk of developing symptoms of decompression procedures ,
decompression sickness (DCS) than would be considered  procedures for flushing the breathing space of
acceptable for recreational divers was assumed for this the diving apparatus, taking into account the

Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society

Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

increased risk of developing symptoms of central compression and completion of the rest of the
oxygen toxicity CNSyn, decompression is performed on the surface in the
 borrowed or newly developed therapeutic decompression chamber. Such a procedure reduces the
procedures in the event of an occurrence of diver's risk associated with being underwater, but exposes
diving sicknesses (DCI), the diver to stress associated with interrupting the
 hyperbaric and medical equipment to secure the decompression process. Evidence shows that interruption
process of treatment of DCI and other possible of decompression can last up to 7 min73. It is a relatively
cases, short time for ascent, reaching the decompression
 transport subsystem to a hyperbaric facility, chamber, partial removal of the diver's gear and re-
 procedures for estimating the risk of CNSyn, compression. Surface decompression systems, as the basic
 an integral emergency breathing subsystem of procedures for the decompression process, are used for
the rebreather, tethered dives, carried out from a surface platform
 emergency rebreathers, equipped with a decompression chamber74. For
 diver thermal protection subsystem. independent dives, such procedures only serve emergency
If the requirement for acceleration70 of the basic functions.
decompression process by using oxygen at the last The system for conducting underwater works
decompression stations is introduced, the system must be may not provide for repetitive dives, but should normalise
further extended not only by a validated procedure for the the rest time that should elapse before the next dive.
oxygen decompression process, but also by the elements
resulting from the risk analysis carried out for this process. CONTEXT RELATED TO EQUIPMENT
The decompression procedure will need to
determine at what stage it is safe to transition to oxygen The most used mixture for supplying open-circuit
decompression due to past exposure and increased oxygen apparatuses is the premix, which fills the cylinders
partial pressure, taking into account the resulting increase supplying the demand regulator, although it is possible to
in the risk of central oxygen toxicity (CNSyn). Regardless have designs that produce the breathing mix during the
of the time and depth of the transition to oxygen diving process from gas components75. One of the options
decompression, an effective procedure should be sought to consider is an open-circuit apparatuses supplied with
for the process of ventilating the breathing space of the air and oxygen, which adjusts the oxygen content x in the
rebreather with oxygen. dynamically composed air-oxygen mixture depending on
The decompression acceleration algorithm will the diving depth H, similarly as for semi-closed-circuit
depend directly on its effectiveness. Of course, it is rebreathers, e.g. the Polish SCR KSZYK SCUBA [13]. In such
necessary to consider the procedure of switching from a case it is necessary to know the function realising the
oxygen decompression to decompression using a gas algorithm of mixing gases from components x = f(H) and
mixture at any time71. It is best if the decompression time to assess on the basis of oxygen content x its partial
between the decompression process using pressure p as well as the partial pressures of other gases
a respiratory mixture and oxygen is calculated according (p! . . p• ). The partial pressure of oxygen p and other gases
to a simple rule. In this case, it is sufficient to specify the (p! . . p• ) is the basis for estimating decompression,
duration of the stay at the stations for the basic exposure to various forms of oxygen poisoning and toxic
decompression schedule using oxygen decompression. effects of gases76.
Emergency decompression using a breathing mixture will The situation will become more complicated if
be the calculation of the time spent at stations breathing the types of breathing mixes are changed during the diving
oxygen. The change of the breathing mix during process77. In this case, the possibility of counter-diffusion,
decompression will require the development of rules for including isobaric, should be taken into account. Both the
flushing the breathing space of the device. In case of composition of the breathing mix (x! . . x• , x ) and the
a failure of the oxygen supply from the rebreather, it is also partial pressures78 of its components (p! . . p• , p ) for the
possible to consider extending the system with external different types of rebreathers can represent complex
oxygen breathing systems72. functions of depth H: (x! . . x• , x ) = f(H), (p! . . p• , p ) =
The use of an oxygen decompression system and = f(H).
emergency decompression when breathing the circulating Open-circuit apparatuses adapt to the breathing
breathing mixture may become complicated if the action of the diver, hence the limitations of workload W are
requirement for marine systems, with the last related to the training of the diver and the constraints of
decompression station at 6 mH2O, is maintained. Such the breathing system. However, it is not advisable to plan
a requirement for all decompression schedules may make for heavy effort79 during independent and tethered dives
the primary decompression process too conservative and outside the saturation zone for the reasons given above.
thus ineffective from the point of view of military diving In closed-circuit rebreathers, in addition to
operations. In this case, it is possible to dispense with this maintaining the composition of the breathing mix
requirement for emergency decompression and to develop (x! . . x• , x ) = f(H, t),va function of depth H and time t, the
two decompression systems depending on whether or not reliability of the algorithm for maintaining the partial
the dive will be protected by other oxygen sources in the pressures of gas components of the breathing mix
event of a malfunction in the supply from the integral (p! . . p• , p ) ≅ idem in response to forced actions is
cylinder set of the rebreather. important. For example, to changes in the consumption of
For marine systems, it seems attractive to use the oxygen v* as a result of a change in workload W
surface decompression process. For some decompression necessitating most often80 changes in the oxygen stream V*
stations, the process of surface decompression enables dosed into the respiratory circuit: V* = f(v* ).
interruption of the decompression process in water, rapid The devices of this type are designed in such
ascent and entering the decompression chamber. Then the a way as to economize on the supply of the breathing mix,
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

hence they have to be able to react moderately quickly to hyperbaric exercise simulators, preferably hyperbaric
forced action. Otherwise, minor fluctuations in the swimming simulators87, as part of the prevention of
maintenance of a certain depth↑ H ↓ could result in an potentially dangerous situations.
unjustified loss of the breathing mix. Hence, deviations The level of diving safety is closely related to the
from the stable oxygen content statex ≠ idem, for risks posed by the equipment and technology used88.
example with rapid changes in the workload81 W, may The presented project focuses on elements of the
cause instability in the algorithm for maintaining the diver's equipment, i.e. the SCR CRABE SCUBA rebreather
composition of the inhaled breathing mix ↑ (x! . . x• , x ) ↓, and the resulting risk of decompression sickness (DCS) and
thus posing an additional risk. The algorithm used in central form of oxygen toxicity (CNSyn), in the tactical
closed-circuit rebreathers is ideal for sustained light effort. context of MCM mine-warfare. Important elements of the
Therefore, even with the use of combat oxygen devices, it diving equipment, include XBS89, diving suits90, gas
assumes planning rather low speed of movement during analysers91, decompression meters, etc.
a combat mission. The planned effort should be relatively
constant, both based on purely mechanical or TACTICAL CONTEXT
electronically controlled mechatronic actuators82, so that
the system of supplementing the deficiencies in oxygen In military diving, the use of diving equipment as
x = f(v* , H) or the breathing mix (x! . . x• ) = f(H), was able structural components of a system ensuring the
to correctly interpret the situation and respond with an implementation of processes resulting from the adoption
adequate action. of specific tactics92 plays a dominant role. In the
In a semi-closed circuit rebreather, fresh understanding of the tasks of the described project, dives
breathing mix is dynamically mixed with the regenerated constitute an element of the system aimed at ensuring the
one. Determining the function (x! . . x0• , x ) = f(v* , H, t) of the protection of our own forces and public safety, which can
composition (x! . . x• , x ) of the breathing mix inhaled by the be divided into three subsystems: MCM93, EOD94, and
diver depending on the consumption of oxygen IEDD95.
v* , depth H and exposure time t is a fundamental problem MCM activities are processes implemented in the
when planning safe hyperbaric exposure and subsequent mine-warfare System. The elements of the mine-warfare
decompression. Most often such devices perform system are specialised vessels, traditionally divided into
a predefined function to obtain the composition of the two groups: mine sweepers and mine hunters, but
(v* , H) mechanically83. Predefining an algorithm to nowadays this division has become blurred and it can be
maintain a constant, assumed composition of the breathing assumed that in modern navies there is a single class of
mix inhaled by a diver (x! . . x• , x ) = f(v* , H) = const vessels used in this respect, i.e. MCMV96. The first of these
requires the adoption of assumptions concerning the are the traditional minesweepers, which, when passing
individual parameters of a diver θ and the permitted over the minefield, drag the trawls that simulate the
tolerances for deviations from these values ∆θ. Subsequent physical fields of ships, forcing mine explosions or
selection of divers, requires checking the fulfilment of the undercutting an anchor mine and shooting it on the
assumptions underlying the design of the algorithm for surface. The second type of vessel has developed into an
maintaining the assumed composition of the breathing mix MCMV and is a comprehensively equipped vessel for the
inhaled by the diver (x! . . x0 , x ) = f(v* , H). implementation of mine searches and neutralisation
The assumed individual parameters θ do not processes, in particular intelligent mines. Typically,
always have to be met by a diver, especially when MCMVs are equipped with autonomous AUVs97/UUVs98 for
accompanied by such phenomena as: sports vagotonia84, reconnaissance in order to collect on a digital map
bradycardia85, significant muscle tissue development, potential targets that can be neutralised by other
being overweight or underweight, etc. Hence divers should autonomous AUVs or ROUVs99. Such vehicles can carry
be initially classified to diving using semi-closed circuit special explosives for neutralisation of suspicious objects,
rebreathers with regard to the fulfilment of the assumed ‘bombard’ them with the use of dedicated explosives
individual parameters θ when designing the device and detonated remotely after the vehicle has entered a safe
diving technology. area, or with a self-propelled explosive charge.
Individual parameters of divers θ change with the Most commonly, a ship is also equipped with an
age and the degree of his/her preparation/training. ROUV fitted with various sensors to scan the basin ahead
Annual medical screening does not focus on these changes. of the ship100 and a towed system equipped with similar
Its task is to check the general state of health and not the sensors for scanning the seabed. Such a vessel may be
level of training or fulfilment of individual parameters equipped with an intelligent trawl system simulating
θ being the basis for the safe use of diving apparatuses. physical fields of different classes of ships. It is most often
Therefore, one-time certification to dive with special towed by an MCMV-based surface unmanned ASV101. The
diving devices may no longer be justified as divers age, or ship is a part of the network-centric102 system of larger
if their training is not kept up to date86. It seems good anti-mine forces103. Such units usually have divers
practice to check the essential for safety individual prepared to carry out rescue operations104 and serve as
parameters of a diver θ during each training course to one of the elements of mitigating the threat from sea
obtain higher diving qualifications. mines.
In the process of diving safety analysis in the It is possible for MCM divers to perform dives
Navy of the Republic of Poland, it is crucial to properly from small vessels operating from the shore or carried by
prepare the dive in terms of the diver's condition, ships105. Their tasks may include reconnaissance, less
efficiency and decompression, because the individual often liquidation or partition of defence infrastructure of
parameters of a diver θ sometimes undergo significant hydrotechnical objects or bank reinforcement106.
fluctuations as a result of adaptation training or its In the part concerning MCM activities, the
discontinuation. Control of individual parameters of presented project focuses on rescue operations of MCM
a diver θ is possible during mandatory training using equipment, neutralisation of intelligent mines and the
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

blinding of electronic defence infrastructure of maritime wire a mine until it is detonated by a self-propelled charge
objects. or prepare it for towing.
The EOD activities focus on the elimination of Underwater IED activities are practically always
dangerous explosives, in the form of undetonated military carried out by VSW swimmers or divers.
explosives UXO107 as remains from: wars, bases, military Counteracting terrorist attacks or actions in
exercises, etc. Owing to the related risk, these activities are asymmetric conflict where suicide divers are being used is
treated as combat activities carried out in conditions of based on the use of unmanned equipment, manned
peace108. An important variation of these activities are IED equipment, SRT diving operations, etc. Knowledge of the
operations focused on counteracting UXO not recognised capabilities of divers in such cases is extremely important,
as typical military equipment. At least theoretically, EOD not only to estimate the risk to their own forces, but also
operations pose less of a threat, because the way of the potential of terrorist/suicide divers.
proceeding results from catalogued algorithms of handling During the implementation of the project data for
UOX of military origin, which typically have the possibility tactical risk analysis for typical scenarios of underwater
of deactivation when set to being irremovable, or the operations will be compiled in conjunction with the risk of
defence system of an intelligent object. decompression sickness (DCS) or central oxygen toxicity
Unfortunately, even relatively primitive IEDs can (CNSyn).
be irremovable otherwise than by their controlled
detonation, and the only countermeasure to reduce the RESEARCH CONTEXT
impact is to rapidly divert the shock wave in a different
direction109 or to use protective screens110. In some cases At the very beginning of work on decompression systems
it is possible to use jamming111 against the electronic for diving devices in Poland118 it was noted that domestic
devices applied, however often these are relatively progress is possible only through seeking deterministic
primitive electrical devices, which can be deactivated only models119. Consistent adherence to this assumption by
mechanically, for example by shooting them with various three generations of researchers has led to the
kinds of bullets112 from a cannon or with a cumulative EFP development of reliable and effective, though arduous,
charge113, burning with a thermite charge, melting of an methodology120.
explosive material, etc. The project by its nature is In the applied research approach, the methods of
connected with the MCM and EOD activities, omitting the predicting the behaviour of the ergonomic diver-
IED activities, as the IED is closely related to the rebreather system were divided into a number of
parameters of physical fields generated by diving interrelated models121 fig. 1. On the basis of the
equipment and is not strictly related to the diving validation studies conducted to date, it seems that the
technology, although the processes of flushing the analytical breakdown into partial models does not cause
breathing space of the device are extremely important the generation of significant errors in their synthesis into
from the point of view of emitting noise into the body of a holistic model and their use according to the holistic
water. approach.
From a tactical point of view, risk analysis is Ventilation modelling by means of differential
aimed at accepting levels of threat other than the levels equations has been known for centuries. These are
resulting from the risk analysis of diving operations. This relatively simple equations that can be solved by
is obvious as both approaches relate to different mathematical analysis methods.
objectives. However, the tactical planning of diving
operations must also take into account the conditions of
the diving technology. For example, for a hypothetical
scenario of an operation to land members of the armed
forces at a specific location. the analysis of the risk of
a hidden reconnaissance operation and the possible
preparation of separation of underwater minefields by
divers, from a tactical point of view, is aimed at
determining the probability of effective performance of the
task at the assumed level of confidence114.
The protection of navigable waterways should be
implemented safely and quickly. It is not always possible
for MCMV units to be called in to deal with drifting mines
observed by vessels which themselves are not equipped to
deal with the task . In this case, typical drifting mines may
be cleared by VSW divers/swimmers115, who, operating
from helicopters, and may be dropped into the water and
place a remotely activated charge in the proximity of the
drifting mine116 or on it. Intelligent mine countermeasures
on a navigable route cannot always be achieved by
underwater vehicles or self-propelled charges on account
of the region or the expected operation of the mine117.
Since vehicles are more easily and more likely to be
detected by the sensors of such mines, the use of divers
remains, as they have a high possibility of masking
themselves against the background of normal physical
fields occurring in the water. A diver can precisely set
a small, non-electrically ignited cumulative charge, cross-
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

Fig. 1. Model sequence.

However, their usefulness until recently was in fig. 1 are determined with much greater reliability.
questioned on the grounds that some parameters of these When searching for solutions for the differential
models could not be determined with sufficient ventilation model of a rebreather containing a system of
accuracy122. Therefore, ventilation engineering is based on bags placed one in the other :;: (x! . . x0 , x ) = f(H, ε, ε7 , x8 , t)
semi-empirical models derived from the approximate the breathing module ε began to play a key role127. This
solution of the differential equation by means of made it necessary to conduct research on the reliable
dimensional analysis methods. determination of the dependence of the breathing module
The barriers related to the use of a deterministic ε = f(H) on depth H.
approach to the ventilation process were first overcome The studies of the breathing module ε are
about 15 years ago. This made it possible to master the described in the available literature with respect to
modelling of deterministic ventilation of a submarine, atmospheric pressure, as they constitute an important
a hyperbaric chamber or a mining pit [14]. The use of these indicator of athletes' training and form the basis for many
achievements in industrial and sanitary engineering could studies concerning effort medicine or work
lead to a change in the approach to ventilation problems. standardisation [15]. The hitherto uncritical transposition
Earlier studies on ventilation of a semi-closed- of values for normobaric conditions into hyperbaric
circuit rebreather with continuous dosing of the breathing studies was a barrier to an adequate development of diving
mix were successfully completed about 20 years ago [13]. systems. The results of studies concerning the breathing
However, such devices have been withdrawn from module ε in specific hyperbaric situations can be found in
national use. rare specialist publications [5-6]. However, the application
In the current approach to modelling a diving of these values is still associated with a decrease in the
system using the SCR CRABE SCUBA, the initially holistic required accuracy and precision of ventilation modelling.
approach has been replaced by an analytical one. The basis Determination of the relationship ε = f(H) regarding
for the planning of decompression schedules is based on changes in the respiratory module ε as a function of depth
several models shown in fig. 1: H for predefined conditions was performed by conducting
 modifications in the breathing module123 ε in the experimental exposures in simulated conditions on
function of depth H: ε = f(H), a representative group of experimental divers128.
 modifications in the composition of the breathing The ventilation model allows to determine the
mix inhaled by the diver (x! . . x0 , x ) = stable oxygen content as a function of depth: x9 =
f(H, ε, ε7 , x8 , t) depending on: depth f(H)|x9 (H, W) ≡ x = idem, environmental parameters
H, breathing module ε, design parameters for and effort. After considering the fluctuations encountered
a semi-closed breathing space of a rebreather ∆x9 in a stable oxygen content x9 , for a predefined depth
ε7, premix composition x8 and time t, H and workload W, the model constitutes a contribution to
 changes in the hazard of central oxygen toxicity decompression modelling – fig. 1.
CNSyn depending on oxygen partial pressure In semi-closed circuit rebreathers SCR supplied
p and exposure time t, with premix, there is a relative decrease in oxygen
 designing decompression124 as a function of content129 from the concentration in the premix x8 to
hyperbaric exposure time t and pressure a stable value130 x9 . This phenomenon is caused by
H, taking into account the influence of interfering obtaining the equilibrium condition when the regenerated
factors such as temperature T, the influence of mixture is mixed with the fresh one. The dynamics of this
previous exposures on decompression, increased process can be modelled similarly to other ventilation
risk of central oxygen toxicity CNSyn, additional processes [14]. Based on previous longstanding studies, it
workload W, immersion and ascent sequence, can be concluded that the ventilation process of the SCR
transport to the place of immersion, stress load CRABE SCUBA rebreather can be described in sufficient
before and after diving, etc. detail based on the ideal gas law. The differential equation
The function ε = f(H) of changes in the breathing built on the basis of the molar balance can be accurately
module125 ε depending on the depth H is not crucial for the calculated. Such an approach is not widely used owing to
reliability126 of determining the values of stable oxygen the difficulties encountered in establishing certain
content x9 from the ventilation model. It has become parameters for this equation. Through many years of
significant because unexpectedly the other models shown research on the process of ventilation of submarines,
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

hyperbaric chambers, mining pits, etc., it was possible to form of oxygen toxicity CNSyn [21]. The project is based on
propose a reliable approach to this issue, hence the the widest published systematic research on modelling the
modelling was based on a fully deterministic, algebraic risk of central oxygen toxicity CNSyn137 relying on
analytical model. mathematical survival analysis138 [22-23]. The model was
Research into the process of rebreather adjusted on the basis of the results of studies conducted by
ventilation without human participation is carried out the British during World War II [24-25] and their
using a station of accumulated simulators of: metabolic continuation by the Americans until the late 1970s [26].
oxygen consumption v* , respiratory action V*> and depth Our own research on the adequacy of such an approach to
H. The simulator is, in many respects, an original solution central oxygen toxicity CNSyn modelling was completed
on a world scale created as a result of many years of own with the validation of the model established by the US Navy
research. It is distinguished by the fact that a liquid [4].
medium is used to simulate oxygen consumption v* , and not The estimation of the level of relaxation139
a gaseous one as in other similar technical solutions in the following oxygen exposures is most commonly performed
world [16]. Because of this, adding it negligibly disturbs using the empirical model140 proposed by the Oceanic and
the volume of gases in the ventilated space. The simulator Atmospheric Administration [27].
set-up features an extremely short pathway between the The estimation of safe decompression schedules
pump simulating lung ventilation V*> and the tested was based on the abandoned141 ZH L! model developed
respiratory system, which does not cause compression and by Bühlmann for the Swiss army [28]. The model takes into
expansion of the breathing mix in the line inducing account military conditions, such as: the special selection
respiratory action. of a group of divers, keeping divers in the condition to
Concurrently, research is conducted in simulated undergo strenuous decompression, increased level of
hyperbaric conditions with the participation of approved threat, etc. It can be assumed to be extremely
experimental divers. Based on the results of these studies, safe. The model was validated during previous studies[29-
the reliability of the applied modelling of the ventilation 30].
and gas exchange process in the ergonomic diver- Decompression planning must be based on
rebreather system is determined. Studies conducted predicted scenarios for diving operations, safety measures
without the participation of experimental divers give an applied142, pre- and post-diving rest conditions, transport
answer on the credibility of the applied mathematical conditions, etc. The assessment of these parameters can be
model in relation to the processes taking place in the real carried out through experimental dives under simulated
object, i.e. the rebreather. Research with experimental conditions, which allows the determination of the
divers allows us to determine the decrease in the reliability permitted ranges of selected exposure parameters.
of the mathematical model in the course of rebreather Validation of the approach, as in previous stages of the
ventilation when accompanied by a disturbance associated study, can be achieved by statistical means using
with the biometric diversity131 of divers HF132, marked sequential analysis [31-32].
here as θ. The deterministic models of ventilation of the
While oxygen is needed to maintain haemostasis semi-closed respiratory space of the SCR CRABE SCUBA
in humans, it is also a carcinogenic factor. Theories exist rebreather and decompression presented in Fig. 1, as well
that postulate that its effects are the main cause of ageing as the statistical model of the risk of oxygen toxicity CNSyn
of aerobic organisms133. In hyperbaric conditions, it is were established with such reliability that the empirical
more dangerous, revealing some forms of toxicity not model ε = f(H)B of a change in the respiratory module
found in everyday life. Under hyperbaric conditions, ε along with depth H for a selected population of
oxygen exhibits pulmonary134, central135 and somatic experimental divers θ as a parameter, became the
toxicity136 [17-20]. The most serious form of oxygen modelling element with the greatest effect on the safety of
toxicity in short-term military dives is central toxicity conducting a hyperbaric exposure. Selected population of
CNSyn. divers θ was a standard population admitted to military
Experiments with central oxygen toxicity CNSyn diving in the Polish Navy. Additionally, population θ should
often revealed less specific symptoms, such as anxiety, undergo the test for deviations from the function ε = f(H)B
paleness of the face, tremor of the lips and eyelids, nausea, describing changes143 in the respiratory module ε with
cramps, confusion, lack of coordination, visual and depth H as well as oxygen tolerance test TTT [32].
auditory hallucinations, narrowed vision or speech A negative result of the oxygen tolerance test is a premise
disorders. These symptoms rarely precede the seizure. The to plan diving operations only with a lower risk of central
onset of generalised convulsions is sudden. The seizure oxygen toxicity CNSyn and to take precautions when
starts with a tonic phase, usually lasting 30 seconds, during planning the treatment process using oxy TT
which the diver loses consciousness and the respiratory procedures144 [32]. In turn, deviations from the
function stops. This is followed by a clonic phase with established function ε = f(H)B, mean that for safety
uncoordinated movements of the whole body. The reasons, the diver should have a differently designed
duration of the whole attack is usually about 2 minutes. If decompression. Negative results of these tests tend to
the poisoning has occurred in the water, the safety diver disqualify the diver from diving training with the use of the
should try to wait until at least part of the consciousness SCR CRABE SCUBA, for formal organisational reasons145.
and respiratory action have returned, a period of apnoea The ability to continuously improve the precision
of up to 3 minutes can be allowed. of decompression planning involves constant
An ascent of a diver without restoring respiratory improvement of the empirical model ε = f(H)B for
action may cause pulmonary barotrauma, as oxygen a change in the respiratory module ε together with depth
toxicity and loss of respiratory action are usually H. Each dive providing reliable data146 on its course
accompanied by laryngeal clenching. Severe forms of enhances the database to be used in the inference on the
central oxygen toxicity CNSyn are fatal. There are many precision of determining the function ε = f(H) and can be
empirical models in the world to predict the risk of this used as a guideline to change the decompression schedule.
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

Operational dives cannot provide reliable data for such have its own technical facilities but cooperated with the
inference, but training and simulation exercises give such Polish Naval Academy.
a possibility. It was also realised that the possibility of hiring
The inference regarding increasing the risk is a professional team of divers from outside Poland is
connected with the diagnosis of deviations from the related to such a large economic barrier that it was decided
empirical model ε = f(H)B of changes in the breathing to enhance the activities by establishing a separate CPBR
module ε with depth H. Data collected during training and division153 in which such teams would be trained. This task
practice in the diving simulator help to identify divers for was entrusted to the WAM-AMW team.
whom the decompression procedure may be potentially The research carried out at that time and later
dangerous. Diver testing on a diving simulator may be used implementations of the technology contributed to the
to eliminate DCS hazards. If the results of the research establishment of a knowledge base for further work in the
show no deviations from the model ε = f(H)B and an field of widely understood diving technologies, which were
increased risk of symptoms of decompression sickness continued also through international cooperation.
DCS is observed, other causes should be sought, for
example, deviations from the technology147 of conducting
underwater works or casuistic reasons148. Monitoring of
deviations from the empirical model
ε = f(H)B of a change in the respiratory module ε with
depth H is a potential tool of work for an officer
responsible for the safety of diving in the Polish Navy.

PROJECT CONTEXT
A scientific project is a process that takes place in
a system that has the structure allowing its
implementation149, for which an analysis of internal and
external contexts should be carried out.
The objective of the project was the operational
need to implement a domestic150 diving technology using
an independent semi-closed-circuit SCR CRABE SCUBA
rebreather as a subprocess of mine countermeasures
operations MCM. The analysis of the project context was
carried out using the SWOT method151. A separate problem
will be the analysis of the context of mine warfare for dives
using the SCR CRABE SCUBA.
The results of the generation of expected
strengths and weaknesses as well as threats and
opportunities are presented in tab. 2. Strengths S include
everything that is an asset, advantage or value of the
analysed system, i.e. the established research project.
Weaknesses W comprise all that constitutes a weakness,
barrier or disadvantage of the analysed system.
Opportunities O encompass all that creates an opportunity
for the analysed system to make a positive change. Threats
T include everything that creates a danger of an adverse
change for the analysed system.
A strength of the project context is the existing
research base. Its beginnings date back to the times of the
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which made the
decision on Poland's specialisation in the production of
hyperbaric systems ensuring the possibility of conducting
long-standing underwater works to a depth of 200 mH2O.
The main pressure facilities were to be manufactured by
the Szczecin Shipyard. The coordination of the research
programme for the shipyard was entrusted to the Gdańsk
University of Technology. The Polish Naval Academy
(AMW), on the other hand, was to be a supplier of life
saving systems. In order to ensure financing of such
extensive works, Central Research and Development
Projects (CPBR) were established. It was soon realised that
an important element ensuring the success of the
undertaking would be the delivery and acceptance tests
entailing the need to conduct saturation dives. At that time,
saturation diving technologies were considered strategic
and were not rendered available to the public. It was
decided to entrust the task of developing such a technology
to the Military Medical Academy WAM152 which did not
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

Tab. 2

Main strengths S, weaknesses W, opportunities O and threats T for internal and external conditions for the implementation of the national diving technology
with the use of an independent semi-closed circuit SCR CRABE SCUBA rebreather.
S 1 research base in place
2 scientific and research potential
3 gained experience

W 1 insufficient military service base

2 inefficient supply system
3 possibilities of decompression and treatment tables

O 1 enhancement of the required NATO operational capabilities

2 development of a systemic approach to the planning of diving operations
3 plan to modernise the Armed Forces

T 1 expected long implementation period

2 need for significant financial resources
3 difficulties in maintaining the sustainability of the project results
S - Strengths: all that is an asset, an advantage, a value the analysed system
W - Weaknesses: all that constitutes a weakness, barrier or disadvantage of the analysed system
O - Opportunities: all that creates an opportunity for the analysed system to make a positive change
T - Threats: all that creates a danger of an adverse change for the analysed system

The acquired knowledge was used to maintain to meet NATO requirements and increases the possibilities
the continuous presence of the AMW service department of interoperability of the Polish Navy.
rendering underwater work services for Polish drilling The key cognitive opportunity resulting from the
platforms and to implement various diving technologies. project is the potential to fill a knowledge gap and meet the
The technical base created at that time was repeatedly tactical requirements or develop diving technologies. The
modernised and nowadays it is a cutting edge facility. Over acquired knowledge will enable effective actions to be
thirty years of experience allows us to assume that the taken in the future. Unfortunately, it should be expected
project has a chance to expand the boundaries of that expensive and long-lasting research should be
knowledge in the field of hyperbaric technologies. undertaken at the initial stage of work. With support from
Weaknesses of the project include insufficient the Armed Forces modernisation plan, the chances for the
repair facilities for the diving gear acquired from the successful completion of the project are very good.
Armed Forces modernisation plan, and an inefficient spare The main challenges are the waiting time for the
parts supply system. first results of the project, which always seems too long to
The most important weakness resulting from the the decision-makers, and the high financial resources
external context is the fact that the supplier provides needed to cover the scientific research. However, the
decompression tables that do not meet all our biggest problem is the long-term preservation of the
requirements. The regulations and well-established project's results. This problem concerns not only Poland,
tradition in the Polish Navy requires that the diving but almost all partners of the Alliance, because of the
technology used ensures, inter alia, the following: generation gap among specialists in hyperbaric
 in the event of a failure in the oxygen supply, the technology. In fact, there is a kind of backwardness, which
possibility of completing the decompression is visible in the repeated solving of the same problems,
using the mixture used during the stay on the sometimes with worse results in comparison to the
bottom, original results.
 in the event of a deteriorating seas state and In the phase of association strength analysis, for
increasing wave activity, ending the the generated strengths S and weaknesses
decompression at the stop at 6 mH O. W, opportunities O, and threats T for internal and external
The supplied diving technology did not offer any conditions related to the implementation of the project
additional recommendations for the treatment of serious scope, an analysis was carried out using a three-grade
cases of decompression sickness resulting from a rapid scale:
ascent of a diver or omission of a significant part of  0 no association,
decompression stops154.  1 weak association,
Implementation of independent dives with the  2 strong association.
use of SCR CRABE SCUBA rebreather gives Poland a chance The results are contained in tab. 3.
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

Tab. 3

Results of the analysis of the strength of association between strengths S and weaknesses W, opportunities O and T threats for internal and external
conditions related to the implementation of a domestic diving technology with the use of an independent semi-closed circuit SCR CRABE SCUBA rebreather.
[Link] [Link]
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 1 1 2
Weaknesses Strengths

2 2 2 2 2
3 2 2 2 2 1
S.

1 2 2 2 2
2 2 1 2 1
3 2 2 2 2 2
W.

0-no association oddziaływania

1-weak association oddziaływania
2-strong association

Tab. 4

Results of analysis of implications for strong associations between strengths S and weaknesses W, opportunities O and threats T for internal and external
conditions for the implementation of a domestic diving technology using an independent semi-closed circuit SCR CRABE SCUBA rebreather
[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 Y Y Y Y
[Link]

2 Y Y Y Y Y Y
3 Y Y Y Y Y
hs
[Link]

1 Y Y Y Y Y
strony

2 Y Y Y
esses

3 Y Y Y Y
 Does a given strength allow to use a  Does a given opportunity contribute
given opportunity? to a given strength?
 Does a given strength mitigate a given  Does a given opportunity allow to
threat? mitigate a given weakness?
 Does a given weakness limit the  Does a given threat weaken a given
possibility of taking advantage of a strength?
given opportunity?
 Does a given weakness increase the  Does a given threat expose a given
risk associated with a given threat? weakness?
Y YES

The numbering of generated strengths  Does a given opportunity allow to mitigate

S, weaknesses W, opportunities O and threats T for internal a given weakness?
and external conditions concerning the project  Does a given threat weaken a given strength?
implementation is identical as in tab. 2 and tab. 3.  Does a given threat expose a given weakness?
The analysis of implications of the identified
strong associations for the left side of tab. 4 was conducted The results of the implication analysis
by answering the following questions: summarised in tab. 4 have the same numbering of
 Does a given strength allow to use a given strengths S, weaknesses W, opportunities O and threats
opportunity? T as in tab. 2 and tab. 3.
 Does a given strength mitigate a given threat? Only strong associations were described, for
 Does a given weakness limit the possibility of which deterministic relations155 were revealed in the form
taking advantage of a given opportunity? of a positive answer to the questions presented in tab. 4.
 Does a given weakness increase the risk
associated with a given threat? Will the existing scientific and research base allow to
increase the required operational capabilities within
Whereas for the right side of tab. 4 the analysis NATO?
was carried out by providing answers to the questions: After the modernisation, the existing scientific
 Does a given opportunity contribute to a given and research base will enable performing tests on
strength? measurement stations with the participation of
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

experimental divers within the scope of the necessary will be eliminated, but it does provide hope that the project
technologies covering the required operational scenarios. will be successful within the assumed time horizon.
The basic scope of the modernisation of the hyperbaric
complex will be the restoration of the cooling capacity of Will the existing research potential reduce the risk related
the water in the pool. Modernisation is also required for to the expected high expenditures on project
the system of visual monitoring, diving parameters and implementation?
recording of conversations. The dive testing station Unsatisfactory progress in SCR CRABE SCUBA
requires building a new metabolic simulator and and SCR IS-Mix SCUBA SCR technology research is
incorporating it into the system of breathing and undoubtedly associated with low budget and time
hyperbaric simulators. constraints for project teams.
The existing hyperbaric base also serves as The project budget is typical for projects with an
a trainer for MCM divers and is used in the training of MCM average level of funding. It includes elements of
divers for higher diving levels. infrastructure modernisation, which is also used for
training and practice. Hence, the level of financing did not
Will the existing scientific and research capacity allow to raise any objections. In the conditions of economic stability
increase the required operational capabilities within of the country, project budgeting seems to be secured.
NATO?
It seems that the Naval Academy still has Will the experience gained be sufficient to mitigate the
sufficient human resources to carry out the necessary risks associated with the expected long duration of the
research. However, medical security is provided by project?
a physician employed under a civil-law contract. The The accumulated knowledge base raises great
experimental divers are also contracted under civil-law hopes for bridging the knowledge gap in the modelling of
contracts with military units. Therefore, most of the ventilation of SCR semi-closed circuit rebreathers. In this
project activities must be carried out outside of business area, the key task will be to re-build a metabolic simulator
hours. Will the experience gained be sufficient to increase on a new simulation site consisting of a breathing and
the required operational capabilities within NATO? hyperbaric simulator. The experience gained with the
It seems that the experience gained in the works previously used simulator suggests that the project is
on the development of new diving technologies will allow expected to bring significant progress in knowledge in the
the implementation of the current project. It is expected design of ergonomic diver-rebreather systems.
that new knowledge will be acquired, which will enable
a significant increase in work efficiency. Such hopes arise Will the experience gained allow to mitigate the risk
from the development of new mathematical models for the related to the expected high expenditures on project
main processes for an ergonomic diver-rebreather system. implementation?
In particular, an adequate model of respiratory space It can be reasonably hoped that during the
ventilation would contribute to a significant progression in project implementation a breakthrough will take place and
the design of diving technology and system environment. the next knowledge gap will be filled allowing for more
Deterministic models should be sought wherever effective work on new diving technologies. However, such
possible while probabilistic models should be used only in a scenario usually does not contribute to the reduction of
the process of validation of the developed technologies. costs, but results in the revaluation of the objectives
towards a higher quality standard for the final solution.
Will the existing scientific and research base allow to If the scientific achievements of the project are
reduce the risk related to difficulties in maintaining the significant, it is likely that a higher achievable quality
sustainability of project results? standard will require additional financial support and an
The scientific and research base is an excellent extension of the project duration.
tool for conducting research on new diving technologies.
However, in the absence of specialists who would like to Does the insufficient military base limit the possibilities for
undertake research in this area on their own, it will not be increasing the required operational capabilities within
possible to maintain the sustainability of the project's NATO?
results. Similarly as in other world centres, as the scientists Formally, the insufficient service base for SCR
working there leave, the competences of these institutions CRABE SCUBA diving equipment does not limit the
are slowly declining. possibilities to increase the required operational
capabilities within NATO, but reduces combat readiness
Will the existing scientific and research potential allow to through too lengthy bureaucratic procedures, which can
mitigate the risk related to the expected long-term be shortened with goodwill. However, the operation of
implementation of the project? diving gear is largely based on external services, which
The impatience of ordering parties is the cause of have to be contracted under public procurement156. This
failure of many projects. Fatal accidents in particular model is not sufficiently efficient in a context where it is
reduce the patience shown to research teams. It seems that necessary to maintain constant, increased combat
the Polish Navy will be able to maintain the necessary readiness.
patience due to unsatisfactory progress in research into
diving technologies for SCR CRABE SCUBA and SCR IS-Mix Does the inefficient procurement system limit the
SCUBA. possibilities for increasing the required operational
At the moment, it appears that the project team capabilities within NATO?
has experience in developing new diving technologies. And According to the philosophy of conducting
the procedures and equipment used are at a good world- combat operations, an inefficient supply system for SCR
class level. This does not guarantee that the risks CRABE SCUBA diving equipment eliminates the possibility
associated with the expected long duration of the project of maintaining operational capability to conduct
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

underwater combat operations, including those within materialisation. Using the FMEA method, a potential risk
NATO. may be ranked in terms of probability and technical scale
Units dispatching mine patrols should have of its impact at the time of its materialisation. The financial
a separate fund to maintain constant combat readiness. scale158 of risk materialisation should be assessed in
Regardless of the needs, which will be planned on the basis parallel to the technical analysis in order not to focus
of experience gained and implemented centrally, these actions to minimise the financially insignificant effects of
units should have at their disposal repair workshops, risk materialisation, while the more severe ones are left as
systems for the production and authorisation of breathing residual. This method has also been successfully applied in
mixes, the ability to promptly purchase gases, spare parts, other projects [34-35].
etc. The FMEA methodology not only contributes to
minimising the effects of risk materialisation, but also
Do the current possibilities of the decompression and establishes a hierarchy of diagnosed, inherent types of risk
treatment tables limit the possibilities for increasing the and thus allows to determine the necessary level and
required operational capabilities within NATO? directions of monitoring of threats and opportunities.
The project focuses on decompression planning The analysis uses the notions of risk and threat.
adapted to the operational scenarios implemented by MCM The differential of the function of risk from the moment t=0
divers, for whom the possibilities of the tables used thus to the moment t here defines the threat or opportunity to
far have been limited in this respect. materialise the risk.
In the case of independent deep water dives, it is In the initial phase, eight residual possible project
important to take into account that a diver may make risks associated with six types of risk were diagnosed:
a rapid ascent. The experience of other NATO countries 1. lack of a sufficient number of experimental
shows that standard procedures based on a set of tables divers,
proposed by the US Navy may not be sufficient. Securing 2. lack of control over the hygiene of life of divers,
such dives may require traditional treatment in saturation 3. selection of an inadequate population of divers,
conditions. This requires changes in the designs 4. occurrence of a casuistic159 case of
of new decompression chambers planned within the decompression sickness DCS,
KORMORAN II project, modernised hyperbaric facilities on 5. testing of technology in conditions deviating
the PIAST and LECH ships as well as SERCÓWKA kits. from the actual conditions,
Unfortunately, other NATO countries are not 6. inadequate performance of a rebreather.
prepared to offer us sufficient support for medical actions,
which is why this issue must be resolved with domestic
efforts.

Does the insufficient military base increase the risk

associated with the expected long duration of project
implementation?
Insufficient military service base may cause the
lack of operable rebreathers for testing and thus prolong
the project implementation time.

Does an inefficient supply system increase the risks

associated with the expected long duration of the project?
An inefficient supply system may cause the lack
of spare parts for rebreathers and result in the lack of
operable devices for testing and thus prolong the project
implementation time.

The analysis of the right part of tab. 4 is

complementary to the one conducted above and it is
unlikely to reveal additional conditions resulting from the
project context, hence it will not be presented in this paper.

RISK IN THE PROJECT

The initial risk analysis for project
implementation was performed using the Failure Mode
and Effects Analysis (FMEA) method [33]. A different
approach will be required for the risk analysis of tactical
use of MCM diving technology as an element of the mine
warfare system157.
Risk analysis, conducted with the FMEA method,
is oriented on the capability to predict the occurrence of
irregularities in the system or in the process taking place
in the system, on the basis of expert knowledge and early
development of methods of reaction to the predicted forms
of risk materialisation as a threat or opportunity,
regardless of the financial scale of the effect of this
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

Tab. 5

Diagnosed main risks in the project.

Zdiagnozowane podstawowe rodzaje ryzyka w projekcie.

Impact intensity Risk mate- Probability of de- Corrected RPN
Possibility of Applied preven-
Type of problem / Risk materiali- following risk ma- Probable cause of rialisation tection of risk ma- RPN
risk materialisa- tion of risk mate-
problem situation sation effect terialisation risk materialisation probability terialisation I P D RPN
tion detection rialisation
I P D RPN=I×P×D
Lack of a sufficient num- Lack of possibil-
Administrative pro-
ber of experimental di- ities for technol- 9 8 full detection 5 360 minimalisation 9 3 4 108
blems
vers ogy validation
Lack of control over life Potential acci- Concealment of pro- Medium detec- avoidance, re-
7 7 8 392 7 4 4 112
hygiene in divers dent blems tion possible duction
Selection of an inade-
Inadequate Medium detec-
quate population of di- 7 Lack of screening 5 6 210 minimalisation 7 3 2 42
technology tion possible
vers
Occurrence of a casuistic
Discontinuation Unforseeable Medium detec- transfer, co-sha-
case of decompression 9 4 6 216 4 4 6 96
of research circumstances tion possible ring
sickness
Limited control of
Testing of technology in 7 8 ideal detection 1 56 replacement 7 2 1 14
Inadequate water temperature
conditions deviating
technology Inaccurate external
from actual conditions 7 7 full detection 9 441 reduction 7 7 2 98
analyses
Failure to check the
Inadequate perfor- Potential acci- 7 4 full detection 6 168 avoidance 7 3 2 42
rebreather
mance of a rebreather dent
7 Failure 6 ideal detection 1 42 accepance 7 6 1 42
Intensity of generated threat I Probability of occurrence P Probability of detection D
1:Nearly imperceptible 1: improbable 1: ideal detection D%@100%
2-5: full detection
2-3:Slight burden on the clinet 2-3: Very small probability
(100%>D%³99.7%)
6-8: possible medium detection
4-6: Moderate impact 4-6: Small probability
(99.7%>D%³98%)
9: not full detection
7-8: Large impact 7-8: Moderate probability
(98%>D%³90%)
9-10: Very large impact 9-10: High probability 10: no detection D%@0%
RPN (Risk Priority Number) – Critical value of relative risk priority number RPN>100
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

Ad. 1 The intensity of the threat posed by the lack project with a limited number of experimental divers
of a sufficient number of experimental divers is high and available. Hence, the risk is quite closely connected with
was determined at a relative level of I=8 in a ten-grade Ad.1. The intensity of the threat is estimated at a high
ordinal scale, as the effect of materialisation of this threat impact level of I=7. The probability of risk materialisation
will be the inability to validate the proposed technology or was assessed at a low level of P=5, with an average
validation will be burdened with systematic error. Because probability of detection at a level of D=6. Taken together,
of mostly administrative barriers, the probability of the this generates the risk priority number of RPN=210, more
threat being created was estimated at a moderate level and than double the critical value. The response to the risk will
in a relative ten-grade ordinal scale they were determined be to minimise it by conducting thorough tests on divers
at P=8 with full detection capability. Therefore, the during experiments. This will minimise the probability of
detection probability was estimated at 100%>D%≥99.7%, risk materialisation to a very low P=3 and increase the
which corresponds to the relative value of D=5 in the ten- probability of detection to full, i.e. D=2. This reduces the
grade ordinal scale. The value of the relative number of risk risk priority number to the negligibly small RPN=42.
in this case is at the level of RPN=320, exceeding the critical During the previous projects one of the divers was
value RPN7F = 100 by more than 3 times tab. 5. diagnosed as not meeting the requirements of the model of
As a way of responding to the risk of a lack of an operation of the rebreather. It seems that in the future it
adequate number of experimental divers, which creates will be necessary to use screening tests for divers
the risk of a lack of validation of the technology under belonging to the group eligible for training and diving with
development or of validation burdened by systematic the use of SCR CRABE SCUBA.
error, it was decided to minimise this risk by creating The available population of military experimental
financial incentives and by additionally deciding to divers is not entirely adequate because, in accordance with
conduct experiments outside the working hours of military the applicable law, it is permissible to admit soldiers who
divers160. are qualified as senior divers to work as experimental
This reduces the relative probability of divers. The path to obtaining such qualifications is long,
materialisation of the risk of bureaucratic barriers to hence they are older individuals in the population of divers
a very unlikely level, estimated at a relative level of P=3, who will use the developed technology. One of the ways to
and slightly increases the probability of detection, owing maintain the adequacy of the approach used is to
to the expected cooperation with divers, resulting in early invalidate the unrealistic requirement to use the
notification of inability to participate in the study on technology only by soldiers with privileges of senior mine
a given date: D=4. This allows to reduce the value of the divers.
risk number to the level of RPN=108, which falls near the Ad. 4 A casuistic case of decompression sickness
critical value. DCS, or DCS with a rare course or incidence, can always
To date, no significant problems with the lack of disrupt the validation process. Some of the conditions
experimental divers have been observed, but the spare conducive to the occurrence of a case-specific DCS are
time of military divers remains limited, hence the threat listed in the part discussing the physiological context161.
does exist. Attempts have been made by the Steering Partial countermeasures include testing of blood
Committee to encourage the owner to request unit acidification or the presence of alcohol in the exhaled air,
commanders to assign divers to the project. This would control of divers' life hygiene, training, etc. However, bad
reduce the likelihood of a threat to the unlikely level of P=4 psychological attitude, taking diet supplements, sleep
and the possibility of detection to the level of full detection disorders, etc., may be dissimulated, concealed or ignored
D=3. This would bring the relative number of risks down by a diver and not diagnosed during a medical interview.
to the level of RPN=108, slightly above the critical level The materialisation of such risks is particularly acute, as it
RPNkr=100, which is identical to the previous one, can lead to the retention of studies for the time of a post-
therefore this option is treated as an emergency option. accident investigation. The intensity of the hazard has been
Ad.2 Lack of control over divers' life hygiene is estimated to be high and amount to I=7. The probability of
a high risk for the project, assessed at I=7 level, because it risk materialisation is unlikely and reaches P=4. The
creates a potential risk of a diving accident at the probability of pre-diving detection can be estimated as
materialisation of this risk. Such a risk is connected with average: D=6. The risk response strategy is to make divers
Ad.1, because the willingness to earn extra income aware of the risk and to transfer it and share it with the
combined with the reluctance to change the behaviour in insurer, hence significant resources have been allocated
order to increase the hygiene of life increases this risk. for the insurance of experimental diving under civil
Therefore, the probability of risk materialisation was liability insurance. This will reduce the risk impact
assessed as moderate, at the level of P=7, with a possible intensity to a level of I=4. This in turn will reduce the risk
average probability of detection at the level of D=8. Lack of priority number from RPN=216 to RPN=96, which is
control over the life hygiene in divers causes a significant slightly below the critical value.
threat to the project at the risk priority number RPN=392. Because the occurrence of a casuistic case of
The response to the risk will be to avoid it and reduce it by decompression sickness DCS is always possible, protection
using diagnostic equipment: a breathalyser and a blood against DCS symptoms in divers is provided by monitoring
lactic acid testing kit. This will reduce the estimated the free gas phase in venous vessels. The method used at
probability of risk materialisation to small amounting to the academy for years has proven to be extremely useful.
P=4 and increase the probability of detection to full: D=4: Ad.5 Checking the technology, in conditions
This will reduce the estimated risk priority number to different from the actual conditions, creates a high
RPN=112, slightly above the critical value. intensity of risk materialisation, assessed at I=7. Two cases
Ad. 3 The selection of an inadequate population of risk materialisation are probable.
of divers may be caused by the lack of adequate screenings, With a limited possibility to modify the water
but most often results from the need to carry out the
Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society
Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

temperature, the probability of risk materialisation was caused a reduction in the risk priority number to the
assessed as average at P=8, with ideal detection D=1. The acceptable level of RPN=84.
risk priority number in this case is below the critical value An inadequate operation of the diving apparatus
of RPN=56. The reaction to this risk is its conversion into is always likely. Preventing this risk is based on
an opportunity by building a water cooling system in the cooperation with the manufacturer through an industrial
pool of the hyperbaric complex. In this case, the estimated partner in the scope of changes in the design of the device
probability of risk materialisation with later use of the to prevent the occurrence of irregularities in operation and
technology decreases to a relative value of P=2 bilateral scientific cooperation with CEPHISMER Tulon in
corresponding to a very unlikely occurrence. Thus, the risk the field of monitoring of existing problems in the French
priority number drops to a negligibly low level of RPN=14. Navy.
The second type of threat is associated with an Based on the analysis of the experimental dives
excessive error in the determination of the content of conducted to date, the probability of failure of the diving
oxygen and other gases in the premix162. It would seem to apparatus was estimated at a low level: P=6, whereas the
be a very unlikely occurrence, but such cases had been probability of detecting a failure at the ideal detection level
observed in previous projects, hence the probability has D=1. Hence the risk priority number is at the small level
been estimated at a moderate level of P=7. Such errors RPN=42. The response to the risk is its acceptance.
arise even with a small deviation from the established SOP The presented analyses show that after applying
procedures163, good diving practice GLP164 or ergonomic the reaction to the analysed risks, the value of the risk
incompatibility between an operator analyst–a measuring priority number decreased. The intensity165 for certain
instrument. In routine tests, such a risk can often easily risks in the project has been slightly reduced. The residual
materialise. The probability of risk materialisation risk is still high, so the project should be classified as
detection is not full D=9. This produces a high technical potentially posing a high technical and medical risk.
threat, as the risk priority number is more than four times
the critical value of RPN=441. The strategy for responding SUMMARY
to the risk is to reduce the risk through: separation of an
experienced observer in whose presence the analyses will Due to specific military requirements, diving
be performed, commissioning the analyses to two technologies should be knowledge-based as extensively as
laboratories or performing additional checks in an possible. The planned research cycle will be based on
external laboratory. This will increase the probability of a country based approach favouring deterministic
detection to full D=2 and reduce the risk priority number modelling of semi-closed systems as a part of the SCR
to a value slightly below the critical value, i.e. RPN=98. CRABE SCUBA rebreather. The issues of respiratory
Deviations from the assumptions for earlier ventilation of the SCR CRABE SCUBA with both a premix
diving technologies with the use of Nx/Tx-SCR CRABE and oxygen are key issues for the project and are therefore
SCUBA were diagnosed, consisting in the expense of the main focus of the research. The system was developed
greater than expected effort during the phase of entering using a process-oriented approach and system engineering
and leaving the water. Divers descend from on board the methods. Under national conditions, the validation of the
ship and not from a pontoon, undertaking strenuous effort accepted theories by methods of inference based on
while moving on the gangway. As a countermeasure, it is binominal distribution is not possible to implement, hence
proposed that the level of technology readiness be raised the inference is based on sequential analysis [23].
from level VIII to level IX by the research team, thus taking The project is related to the MCM diving
steps towards continuation of the project while taking into technology realised in a wide range of depths, as an
account these conditions. The materialisation of such a risk element of the mine-warfare system. The dives should be
is critical as it depletes the project of significant financial conducted from the surface to about 80 mH2O and to cover
resources as well as the time spent on project different depth ranges decompression will be performed
implementation. Such accidents do happen, therefore it is with oxygen and various Nitrox mixtures to the depth of 50
worthwhile to use the Lessons Learned guidebook made mH2O, whereas at greater depths with helium-based
available by the NATO Navies. mixtures166. In principle, decompression should be
In the case of not yet fully tested SCR CRABE accelerated by the use of oxygen. The context of utilisation
SCUBA, the risk of inadequate operation may be caused by of diving technologies as elements of the minefighting
two reasons: lack of a thorough check before diving or system seems to be particularly important. The goal should
failure. In both cases, the materialisation of risk may lead be to ensure that the conservatism of technology poses
to a diving accident, hence the intensity of the hazard a threat within the limits167 (1;3)% of an occurrence of DCI,
impact has been assessed to be high, i.e. I=7. The as estimated for an epidemiological risk. The project did
probability of improper testing of the rebreather prior to not include any studies on the possibility of undertaking
diving was estimated at the level of P=5 and the probability repeated or repetitive dives.
of detection at the level of D=7 as a result of an occurrence During the project implementation, attention will
of a case of improper preparation of the rebreather during be paid to selected problems of divers' life and work
the research owing to a deviation from SOP. These hygiene and adaptation training. The developed SOP
parameters generate the risk priority number at RPN=24. procedures resulting from previous works and regulations
The strategy of reaction to risk will consist in its will be maintained and, if necessary, revised.
minimisation by permanent, qualified supervision. The task of the project is to develop technologies
Therefore, an extended supervision team will be used to for point diving. This approach requires both the
conduct experiments by qualified and experienced development of a diving technology taking into account the
specialists from the Academy. This will allow to reduce the lack of performing of additional work by the diver, where
level of probability of materialisation of the risk of the main problem is the risk of the occurrence of
a potential diving accident to the level of P=4 and the symptoms of central oxygen toxicity CNSyn, as well as
probability of detection to D=3. The reaction to the risk
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

dives performed during emergency situations, posing CONCLUSIONS

a potential threat of developing symptoms of
decompression sickness DCS. The scientific approach is based on a thorough
The tradition cultivated in the Polish Navy has analysis of the processes taking place in the examined
shown that the decompression system should be secured system in order to be able to forecast its future169 with
with a system enabling the decompression process to be satisfactory reliability170.
carried out in difficult conditions. Said system should The project uses a process-based approach to
consist of hyperbaric procedures and contain the required developing the theory that provides the possibility to plan
technical and medical equipment to execute them, underwater activities. The reliable171 deterministic model
including procedures to evacuate the diver to a specialist for the ergonomic man-machine system established in the
hyperbaric facility or hospital. Elements of the system of project offers the possibility of prediction172 of the
securing the realisation of therapeutic processes may be required reliability. The described process of deterministic
borrowed or developed anew. The system of therapeutic modelling by its nature enables continuous improvement
recompression tables should provide for therapeutic of prediction precision and estimation of threat level, while
procedures in the event of a diver's rapid ascent from diagnosing deviations from model repeatability or
significant depths, omitting decompression stations. precision. This is important because, due to specific
The use of diving apparatus with semi-closed requirements, military diving technologies should be as
circulation of the breathing mix and mixtures with knowledge-based as possible.
increased oxygen content requires the development of
a recruitment process for divers and maintaining them in
proper condition. The risk of developing symptoms of FINAL INFORMATION
decompression sickness and central oxygen toxicity is
higher than for recreational divers. This paper contains only an extract from the
An important parameter of a diving operation is performed context analysis for the project, without the
the possibility of burdening the diver with work, which is description of the project assumptions, selection and
connected with the process of ventilation of the breathing analysis of critical parameters CTQ173 and the
space of the device, as well as the process of identification of the main research process, which
decompression and the increasing risk of central oxygen constitutes the introduction to the base project
toxicity. implementation plan and communication procedure,
Regardless of the time and depth of the transition which on the other hand are the basis for the preparation
to oxygen decompression, an effective procedure should of the feasibility study of the project. As can be seen, the
be sought for the process of flushing the breathing space of context analysis explaining the needs and conditions of the
the diving device with oxygen. The decompression project implementation is quite extensive and complex,
acceleration algorithm will depend directly on its even for the project stakeholders. The decision to publish
effectiveness. Of course, it is necessary to consider the it was connected with providing answers to questions
possibility of switching from oxygen decompression to gas challenging the purpose of undertaking the project. Project
mixture decompression at any time. documents were assessed on a multi-level basis by various
The system for conducting underwater works institutions, including independent scientific experts.
may not provide the possibility of repetitive dives, but it Opinions calling into question the legitimacy of a decision
should normalise the amount of time spent on rest to launch a project undermine their authority. Most of the
required to conduct a second dive. decision-makers are unknown to me, but as a project
Predefining the algorithm for maintaining manager, it is my duty to protect the results of their work.
a constant, assumed composition of the breathing mix I hope that the positions negating the decisions made
inhaled by the diver through the diving apparatus requires resulted only from the lack of awareness of how deep and
making assumptions about the individual parameters of accurate the thought process underlying the decision was.
the diver, which are not always met, hence divers should Information about the project is, in its nature,
be examined in terms of compliance. The individual public information and all institutions and persons
parameters of a diver change with the age of the diver and possessing knowledge about it are obliged to answer the
the degree of preparation/training. It appears good questions asked. The prepared application for the project
practice to check the key safety parameters of a diver at the is a legally protected good in Poland, hence the best way to
time of each training course for higher diving reveal it is a scientific publication by the author. Therefore,
qualifications. should there still be a need for further explanations, the
In the process of diving safety analysis in the only obstacle to further disclosure of the assumptions for
Navy of the Republic of Poland, it is crucial to properly the project is the approval of a magazine printing such
prepare a diver in terms of fitness and efficiency, as well as extensive material.
for the decompression, because the individual parameters
of a diver tend to fluctuate significantly as a result of
adaptation training or its discontinuation. Control of
individual parameters of a diver is possible during
obligatory training sessions carried out with the use of
hyperbaric simulators, preferably hyperbaric swimming
simulators or simulators of underwater work168, as part of
the prevention of potentially dangerous situations.

Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society

Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

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8. Gerth W.A. 2002. Overview of survival functions and methodoology . [aut. książki] Weathersby P.K. Gerth W.A. Survival analysis and maximum
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16. —. 2015. Catalytic hydrogen combustion on a sumbarine. Gdynia : Polskie Towarzystwo Medycyny i Techniki Hiperbarycznej, 2015. ISBN 978-
83-938-322-3-1.
17. —. 2007. Modeling of ventilation processes of normo- and hyperbaric facilities. Gdynia : Akademia Marynarki Wojennej, 2007. Postdoctoral thesis.
PL ISSN 0860-889X no. 160A.
18. —. 2011. Possibilities of decompression selection for CRABE diving apparatus - assumptions for standard and experimental dives. Gdynia :
Polskie Towarzystwo Medycyny i Techniki Hiperbarycznej, 2011. ISBN 978-83-924989-4-0.
19. —. 2012. Possibilities of adaptation of oxygen-nitrox exposures for AMPHORA type diving apparatus - assumptions for standard and experimental
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33. Predictive studies IV. 1978. Work capability and physiological effects in He-O2 excursions to pressures of 400-800-1200-1600 fsw. Philadelphia :
Institute for Environmental Medicine University of Pennsylvania, 1978. Report 78-1.
34. Report of proceedings Technical Symposium on The human factor in North Sea operational diving:. Proceedings Technical Symposium on The
human factor in North Sea. 4-5 Nov1976. Heathrow : Hotel London, 4-5 Nov1976.
35. Shykoff B. 2007. Performance of various models in predicting vital capacity changes caused by breathing high oxygen partial pressures. Panama
City : Navy Experimental Diving Unit, 2007. NEDU Report TR 07-13.
36. von Ahsen A. 2008. Cost-oriented failure mode and effects analysis. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 25: 2008 . 2008,
Tom 25, DOI: 10.1108/02656710810873871, pp. 466-476.
37. Wald A. 1947. Sequential Analysis. New York : Jon Willey & Sons, Inc., 1947.

dr hab. inż. Ryszard Kłos, prof. nadzw.

AMW Akademia Marynarki Wojennej im. Bohaterów Westerplatte
Zakład Technologii Prac Podwodnych
81 – 103 Gdynia 3
ul. Śmidowicza 69
Tel: +58 626 27 46

ORCID identifier No: 0000-0002-4050-3978

1 methodology is a collection of principles concerning the performance of selected processes,

2 Semi-Closed Rebreather Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus,
3 technology is understood here as system optimisation for a given process,
4 unless requests are made for their more precise interpretation,
5 resulting from tactics,
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

6 by way of various analyses, including studies of feasibility, competitiveness or risk analysis,

7 system where more than the necessary elements have been applied due to functional reasons for the purpose of increasing its reliability,
8 although it does not have to happen,
9 Mine CounterMeasure,
10 i.e. with little risk of an occurrence of even mild symptoms of DCS (DeCompression Sickness),
11 slower for the decompression process,
12 polish literature refers to such a procedure as extended decompression,
13 conservatism will amount to 100% for the gradient equal to 30% of the maximum saturation value and 0% for 70% of the value of this gradient,
14 Decompression Illness, as a term broader than DCS, for instance by including CNSyn (Central Nervous Syndrome),
15 improving the mobility of disabled persons,
16 enabling people with disabilities to participate in life, social and sporting activities, at a level similar to that of others with similar disabilities; for example,

diving for people lacking limbs or diabetics' diving clubs,

17 for example, failure of a hoist, winch, underwater vehicle, explosion, displacement of a wreck or its component, etc.,
18 this situation occurs when a diver is rescued by their safety diver during any type of diving,
19 Explosive Ordinance Disposal,
20 Special Response Team,
21 this applies to operations in peaceful conditions in the fight against terrorism, but when taking asymmetric actions by the opponent, an appetite for risk may

reach much higher values,

22 some countries use procedures for assessing and selecting threats according to their tactical situation assessments,
23 during an emergency to a depth of 60 mH O,
24 the application of neon also seems possible,
25 above 1% but not more than 3%,
26 Decompression Sickness,
27 because the most common way to intensify decompression is to use possibly high oxygen partial pressures,
28 for example, rest time before diving or undisturbed sleep in the night before diving,
29 irrespective of the time of stay at it,
30 an interesting solution could be the use of Neox,
31 for instance, when entering a diving bell,
32 Human Factors,
33 Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen,
34 in the sense of physical or mental phenomena subject to experimental cognition,
35 the divers were conventionally classified as "delicate" and "resistant" to the conditions of strenuous decompression,
36 current attitude to diving,
37 resistance to panic, melancholy, depression or resignation is not comparable to the ability to soberly assess the situation, make clear use of the knowledge

resources and take effective action under stressful conditions,

38 eyes are ‘the mirror of the soul’,
39 muscle tension or tremor can be checked in passing while checking the equipment by touching the diver's muscles or placing a hand on his/her shoulder,
41 not only heart rate but also pulse volume,
42 verifying that the diver remembers and has easy access to valves, switches, watch, panel, knife, etc.,
43 decompression does not end with reaching the surface, but a state of equilibrium with the respiratory atmosphere is achieved through slow isobaric

decompression, after saturated dives the process is the longest,

44 up to one hour after completing previous decompression,
45 more than one hour from the completion of previous decompression,
46 clearance time,
47 it does not have to be an air atmosphere, because the diver can breathe on the surface, for example from an oxygen inhaler,
48 it ensures, for instance, being able to reach for a mouthpiece that has escaped from the mouth, access to valves, possibly floating lines, vegetation that

may entangle the diver, etc.,

49 in water bodies the temperature in the water layers can stratify, in the thermocline the temperature changes quickly with a change in depth,
50 for example, during transport activities or when resting on the beach,
51 Standard Operating Procedures,
52 vasoconstriction,
53 6.0N oxygen is on the market, which means 99.9999% oxygen in the gas,
54 although, in this case too, the content of impurities increases with the increase in ‘dead spaces’,
55 washout period,
56 washing of the breathing space of the diving apparatus while at the bottom is undesirable due to the direct proximity of a mine or diver detection and

combating systems,
57 for example, it is easier for a diver to double the predicted time of oxygen decompression and to complete it with the use of an operational mixture in the

event of a failure of oxygen supply than to calculate this time according to a different formula,
59 the diver omits a part of the decompression and, after the ascent and a limited time on the surface, is compressed again and subject to further decompression

in the decompression chamber,

60 thus making it more conservative,
61 artificial extension of stay time at the bottom,
62 this technology variant takes into account stressful situation such as when a diver has for example to operate in sea currents,
63 Treatment Tables,
64 such as passing the oxygen tolerance test,
65 in the case of recreational dives the risk is usually specified at the level p = 1% and for combat dives at p ≤ 5% with significance α = 0.01,
66 outside the saturation zone expending more effort is dangerous,
67 rest will be necessary for the performance of mine work or caused by tactical situation connected with the need to reduce noise emission, but in such

a case the problem of an increased risk of central oxygen toxicity should be considered,
68 for example, with an open circuit of the breathing mix,
69 for example, in the form of additional devices taken by a diver or suspended in the water depths,
70 many additional elements of the system can be added, such as a communication subsystem increasing mental comfort, having a significant impact on

decompression processes,
71 speeding up,
72 for instance, in the case of oxygen supply failure,
73 additional rebreathers suspended in water or carried by a diver,
74 according to Canadian practice, but in Poland an interval of up to 5 minutes was allowed,
75 in such a case there is a much greater certainty that the diver will reach the decompression chamber on time,
76 such designs are common for cable-supplied breathing systems, such as Polycom 101 manufactured by Drägerwerk AG Lübeck,
77 for example, exposure to nitrogen narcosis,
78 for example, during descent and staying at the bottom, Trimix will be used and in the decompression process it will be replaced with Nitrox and later with

oxygen,
79 the partial pressures of gas components of the breathing mix (p . . p , p ) do not always have to change smoothly with a change in the depth H, because
! 0
a rebreather can implement an algorithm to maintain a constant partial pressure of a given gas through an adapted change in its content during a change in
pressure, such as devices achieving a constant partial pressure of oxygen p (p_1..p_j,p_i): Mk15/16,
80 this does not apply to dives from the saturation plateau,
81 the supply of oxygen can also be achieved by delivering it to the circuit together with other components of the breathing mix,
82 for example, flinching during a panic attack,

Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society

Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy
 Polish Hyperbaric Research

83 an actuating element of an automation system that performs a predefined process of reaction to forced action,
84 often under electronic control,
85 decrease of respiratory action in trained athletes in relation to the average,
86 heart rate decrease in trained athletes in relation to average; this effect is amplified in the case of immersion in water (as opposed to immersion in virtual

environments, art or culture),

87 what is meant here is not diving training, but adaptive training for other activities,
88 in real-life conditions, such verification has thus far been difficult to implement,
89 the technology should have a declared appetite for risk that directly results from the tactical context,
90 External/Auxiliary Breathing System, emergency breathing system: “pony”, etc.,
91 due to thermal protection preventing cooling and overheating and thus influencing the risk of central oxygen toxicity CNSyn,
92 analysers of oxygen partial pressure / composition and carbon dioxide content were developed as optional equipment for the SCR CRABE SCUBA rebreather,
93 the theory and practice of using equipment and instruments to achieve the intended purpose,
94 Mine Countermeasure,
95 Explosive Ordnance Disposal,
96 Improvised Explosive Device Disposal,
97 Mine Countermeasures Vessel,
98 Autonomous Underwater Vehicle,
99 Unmanned Undersea Vehicles,
100 Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicle,
101 i.e. a reconnaissance vehicle operating from the vessel,
102 Autonomous Surface Vehicle,
103 Network Centric Warfare,
104 MCMV usually need shielding ensured by other classes of ships and aircraft,
105 MCM divers can, for example, be used to: to release entangled MCMV equipment, to prepare to extract exercise torpedoes fired by submarines, to harvest

or destroy undetonated self-propelled or dropped explosive devices, etc.,

106 also secretly, for example, by submarines,
107 for instance, of the infrastructure securing against reconnaissance or landing operations,
108 Unexploded Ordnance,
109 diving technology for such activities should differ from typical military and training technology,
110 e.g. by rapid pulling back by a fast boat, blowing out with a blow directed from a special cannon, etc.,
111 for example, underwater air curtains or water sleeves, lining with rubber, shock wave damping plastic, used on land,
112 activities involving the destruction of electronics or the jamming of internal and external signals,
113 wooden plastic pegs, lead bullets, water stream, etc.,
114 Explosively Formed Penetrator,
115 Assuming, as an alternative variant of the operation, a strike with the introduction in the first line of units capable of launching elongated charges and

burning the access routes or blocking the passageways by air or rocket force strike in order to burn the crossing. However, the impact exposes the operation
to the necessity of undertaking a combat for which the opponent may be prepared. Opponent forces are able to detect and counteract attack line forces or
aerial attacks. In addition, it is not possible to maintain secrecy until the landing has taken place. In addition, if significant losses are incurred, then despite a
successful breakthrough, occupying the defended area or conducting a pursuit may not have a chance of success. Consideration of using SRT or MCM
troops to secretly identify and mine obstacles, despite about 100% of the risk associated with the lack of possibility to recover the subdivision of divers, if
there is a probability of completing the task with 70% confidence at 95% confidence level it seems justified from the point of view of economics of conducting
combat operations, provided that the possible detection of underwater activity can be immediately compensated by the implementation of the breakthrough
variant,
116 Very Shallow Water,
117 for instance, in the form of a floating ring,
118 for example, having the ability to move or bury,
119 approximately 35 years ago,
120 the use of statistical models was reserved only for the validation process,
121 it was difficult to choose such a tactic, as it is widely held that it is impossible to develop sufficiently accurate and reliable deterministic models for such

a complex human-machine interaction system as is the case with diving,

122 a typical analytical approach was applied, which requires a synthesis of the developed models and validation with the use of a statistical model,
123 most often related to the volume of ventilated space,
124 ε breathing module is the ratio of oxygen consumption to lung ventilation ε(H) = υ* /R* related to diving depth H,
S
125 at least several may be recommended: neo-haldanian, RGBM, VPM etc.,

126 the ratio of consumed oxygen stream v* to ventilation stream V* : ε =

T*
> *
,
RS
127 repeatability and reproducibility with assumed accuracy at the assumed significance level,
128 similar, for instance, to the role of ventilated volume in the ventilation model for a submarine [14],
129 the representativeness of the group is limited to divers meeting the criteria for military divers and those who can perform the role of experimental divers,
130 in relation to oxygen content in the premix supplied into the breathing space,
131 for stabilised respiratory parameters of a diver,
132 biodiversity,
133 Human Factors,
134 for anaerobic organisms it is a lethal toxic agent,
135 symptoms similar to lung burning with chemicals,
136 in relation to central nervous system,
137 reduced red blood cell count, decreased vital lung capacity, oxygen induced blindness, etc.,
138 Central Nervous Syndrome,
139 this theory forms the basis for epidemiological research, research into

mortality and biodiversity, machine reliability, risk analysis, etc.,

140 a return to the state preceding the oxygen exposure, consisting in deactivation of potentially dangerous reactive oxygen compounds by biochemical

mechanisms as a result of exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen,

141 commonly used in computer programmes for planning civil technical dives [36],
142 considered dangerous to a wide range of divers,
143 possibility of performing decompression at the last station at the depth of 6 mH O, possibility of omission of oxygen decompression, possibility of additional
2
effort load, taking into account previous dives, taking into account the type of transport, taking into account low temperature dives, etc.,
144 such deviations occur when a diver has a significantly developed muscle tissue compared to typical, for this reason one diver was rejected,
145 Treatment Tables,
146 as military dives are carried out in pairs,
147 reproducibility and repeatability,
148 for example, in the diver's physical preparation, reduction of the effectiveness of flushing the respiratory space of the rebreather, inappropriate preparation

of breathing mixes or deterioration of their required quality, inappropriate packing of the scrubber or reduction of its quality parameters, etc.,
149 the occurrence of rare medical conditions or diseases,
150 most of the elements of the system allowing for the implementation of the project constitute the laboratory base of the Naval Academy described below,
151 implementation of domestic diving technology was due to the lack of certain procedures required by tradition and national law which is not in place for

diving technology supplied with the rebreather, as referred to below,

152 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats,
153 CPBR 9.5 implementation objective 31 technical, medical and legal problems of human long-term presence under water at a depth of 120 m.,
 2019 Vol. 67 Issue 2

154 CPBR 9.2 objective 17.07 Development of a system of saturated exposures in the zone up to 100 m and the principles of the research and medical security
of divers,
155 in the case of independent deep water dives, it is important to take into account the possibility of the diver ascending rapidly from considerable depths,
156 causal,
157 even in peace conditions, divers need to perform the mine patrolling duty,
158 as indicated in the tactical context description,
159 cost-oriented FMEA [37],
160 here understood as ambiguous,
161 additional work of soldiers outside their duty hours is legally permissible,
162 for example: acidification of the body caused by strenuous training, presence of alcohol in the body, sleep deprivation, etc.,
163 breathing mix supplied in the rebreather,
164 Standard Operating Procedures,
165 Good Laboratory Practice,
166 impact,
167 it also seems possible to apply neon,
168 above 1% but not more than 3%,
169 in real-life conditions, such verification has so far been difficult to implement,
170 prediction,
171 a natural example can be such as learning of weather processes occurring in the system atmosphere that allows to predict weather phenomena with

sufficient repeatability and satisfactory precision,

172 sufficiently precise and reproducible for the intended use,
173 scientifically based predictions of pathways for future processes or changes in system characteristics,
174 Critical to Quality.

Journal of Polish Hyperbaric Medicine and Technology Society

Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Polish Naval Academy