BESCK204D – Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Module - III

MODULE – 3 – INTRODUCTION TO IC ENGINES & INSIGHT FOR FUTURE MOBILITY

ENGINE:
A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The
combustion of fuel such as coal, petrol, and diesel generate heat. This heat is supplied to a working
substance at high temperature. By the expansion of this substance in suitable machines, heat energy is
converted into useful work.

CLASSIFICATION OF I C ENGINES:

According to the type of fuel used:

• Petrol engine - If the fuel used is petrol, the engine is called as petrol engine.

• Diesel engine - If the fuel used is diesel, the engine is called as diesel engine.

• Gas engine - gaseous fuels like bio-gas, natural gas, or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), etc.,
are used as fuels.

• Bi-fuel (Bio-fuel) engine - these engines use a mixture of more than one fuel. For example,
mixture of diesel and natural gas, mixture of diesel and neem oil, etc.

According to the number of strokes per cycle:

• 4-stroke engine - if the engine completes its working cycle in four different strokes of the
piston, or two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is called as 4-stroke engine.

• 2-stroke engine - if the engine completes its working cycle in two different strokes of the
piston, or one revolution of the crankshaft, it is called as 2-stroke engine.

According to the method of ignition:

• Spark Ignition (SI) engine - If the fuel is ignited by an electric spark generated by a spark
plug, the engine is called as spark ignition engine.

• Compression Ignition (CI) engine - In these engines, the fuel ignites when it comes in
contact with the hot compressed air.

According to the cycle of combustion:

• Otto cycle engine - If the combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume, the engine is
called Otto cycle engine.

• Diesel cycle engine - combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure.

• Dual combustion cycle engine - combustion of fuel first takes place partially at constant
volume, and then at constant pressure.

According to the number of cylinders used:

• Single cylinder engine - If the engine consists of only one cylinder, then it is called as single
cylinder engine.

• Multi-cylinder engine - If the engine consists of more than one cylinder, then it is called as
multi-cylinder engine.

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According to the arrangement of cylinders:

• Vertical engine - If the cylinder is arranged in a vertical position, the engine is called vertical
cylinder engine.

• Horizontal engine - cylinder is arranged in horizontal position.

• Inline engine - cylinders are arranged in a line. Most trucks are of inline configuration.

• Radial engine - cylinders are arranged along the circumference of a circle.

• V-engine - It is a combination of two inline engines equally set at an angle. Passenger vehicles
have V-type configuration.

• Opposed type engine - cylinders are arranged opposite to each other.

According to the method of cooling:

• Air cooled engine - If the heated cylinder walls (due to combustion of fuel) are cooled by
circulating air, the engine is called air cooled engine

• Water cooled engine - water is circulated through the jacket surrounding the healed cylinder
walls.

PARTS OF AN IC ENGINE:
The following are the main parts of an internal combustion engine.
• Cylinder
• Piston
• Piston rings
• Connecting rod
• Crank
• Crankshaft
• Crankcase
• Fly wheel
• Valves

CYLINDER HEAD/COVER

The cylinder cover/cylinder head forms the top part of the combustion space and it must be
of sufficient strength to withstand the gas load at maximum pressure.

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The primary function of the cylinder head is to close the end of the cylinder and to seal the
gases involving extreme pressure and temperatures. The cover is exposed to high mechanical and
thermal stresses

CYLINDER BLOCK
A cylinder block is the main body of the IC Engines. It is also known as engine block. An
engine block is main structure which holds and contains the cylinder and other components if IC
Engine.

The cylinder block is manufactured by the process of casting. The cylinder head is tightly
mounted on top of the cylinder block with bolt and studs.

Materials :- The material used for construction is iron or aluminum.

A suitable cooling system is provided for these two components (water jacket, cooling fins).
Cylinder gaskets are used to seal all mating surfaces, including the cylinder head and cylinder block.

PISTON

A Piston is an important part of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors,

hydraulic cylinders and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar devices. It is components of the
combustion chamber of a marine diesel engine that converts the exhaust gas forces into mechanical
power by reciprocating motion. It is a part of diesel engine which forms the lower part of the
combustion chamber.

CONNECTING ROD
The next in the list of components of IC Engine is Connecting Rod. As the name suggests, this
rod connects the top and bottom end bearings, facilitating the conversion of the Piston’s forces into
the crankshaft’s rotating power.

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The connecting rods are made from a steel forging shaped at each end to accommodate the
suitable bearings. The oil hole is bored through the center of the rod to allow the passage of lubricating
oil between the bearings-downwards in cross-head engines but upwards in piston trunk engines.

CRANKSHAF T
The crankshaft is a component enclosed in the crankcase that converts the reciprocation motion
of the piston to the rotary motion of the output shaft. Crankshafts are generally consists of crank web,
crank pin and journal and sometimes counter balancing weights for static and dynamic balancing of the
rotating system.

FUEL INJECTOR
Fuel injector is an important component of IC engine. It is located on the cylinder head.
It sprays the fuel through a tiny nozzle. Instead of a strong jet stream, the fuel injector sprays the fuel
as a mist through a special nozzle. When you open the throttle, your fuel injector sprays fuel into the
air, which then enters the engine’s combustion cylinders.

CAM AND CAMSHAFT

Cams and camshafts are engine components that control the opening and closing of inlet and
exhaust valves. Cam and camshaft are driven by the crankshaft via timing gears, which are designed
to open the valves at the correct timing and keep them open for the required duration. The camshafts
are also responsible for driving the ignition system.

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INLET AND EXHAUST VALVE

Inlet and Exhaust valves are the valve fitted on the cylinder head. Air for combustion is inter
through Inlet valve and burnt exhaust gas exhaled through exhaust valve. It is operated by cam or
chain drive

CRANKCASE
A crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft in a reciprocating internal combustion engine. The
crankcase is integrated into the engine block in most modern engines.

PISTON RINGS
A piston rings is a split ring in a reciprocating engine, such as an internal combustion engine or
steam engine, that fits into a groove on the exterior diameter of a piston. The main functions of piston
rings is to seal the gases generated in the combustion inside the combustion chamber. It helps to
transfer heat to the wall of the cylinder, and then to lubricate and s crape the oil out of it. Getting the
quantity of oil right is vital. Too much oil will cause the engine to burn off during combustion,
potentially causing your engine to produce blue smoke, and too little will ultimately cause the engine to
seize.

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• TOP DEAD CENTRE (TDC) OR COVER END: The extreme position of the piston near to the
cylinder head is called top dead centre. Briefly abbreviated as TDC. In horizontal engines, like
the opposed type engine, the term top dead centre becomes irrelevant, and hence the term
cover end is used in-place of top dead centre.

• BOTTOM DEAD CENTRE (BDC) OR CRANK END: The extreme position of the piston near to
the crankshaft is called bottom dead centre. Briefly abbreviated as BDC. In horizontal engines,
like the opposed type engine, the term bottom dead centre becomes irrelevant, and hence
substituted by the term crank end.

• BORE: The inner diameter of the cylinder is called bore. It is denoted by d.

• Stroke or Stroke length: The linear distance travelled by the piston when it moves from top
dead centre to bottom dead centre is called stroke or stroke length. It is denoted by L.

• STROKE VOLUME OR SWEPT VOLUME OR PISTON DISPLACEMENT: The volume swept by

the piston when it moves from the top dead centre to bottom dead centre is called stroke
volume or swept volume or piston displacement. It is denoted by Vs.

• CLEARANCE VOLUME: The volume of the cylinder above the top of the piston when the piston
is at the top dead centre is called clearance volume. It is denoted by Vc.

A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston
strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle.
The piston make two complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle. An
operating cycle requires two revolutions (720°) of the crankshaft.
The four-stroke cycle engine is the most common type of small engine. A four-stroke cycle
engine completes five Strokes in one operating cycle, including intake, compression, ignition,
power, and exhaust Strokes.

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FOUR-STROKE PETROL ENGINE (4-S-P-E):-

A four-stroke petrol engine works on Otto cycle. Hence it is also called Otto cycle engine.

The charge used in a 4-Stroke petrol engine is a mixture of air and petrol, and is supplied by the
carburettor in suitable proportions. The charge is ignited by the spark generated by a spark plug, and
for this reason, petrol engines are also called Spark Ignition (SI) engines.

SPARK PLUG

WORKING:

In a 4-Stroke petrol engine, the working cycle is completed in four different strokes of the piston.

Suction stroke: At the beginning of the suction stroke, the piston is at the top dead centre (TDC), and
is about to move towards the bottom dead centre (BDC). At this instance, the inlet valve is opened and
the exhaust valve is closed. The downward movement of the piston produces suction (partial vacuum)
in the cylinder, due to which fresh charge of air and pe trol mixture is drawn into the cylinder through
the inlet valve.

When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve is closed. With this
stroke, the crankshaft rotates through 180° or half-revolution.

The energy required for the piston movement is taken from a battery. The suction of air takes place at
atmospheric pressure, and is represented by the line AB on p-v diagram.

Compression stroke: During the compression stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both the
inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air- petrol mixture in the
cylinder gets compressed (squeezed), due to which the pressure and temperature of the mixture
increases.

The compression process is adiabatic [Adiabatic - It is a process in which there is no heat transfer from
the system to the surroundings or vice-versa.] in nature and is shown by the curve BC on p-v diagram.
When the piston is about to reach the TDC, the spark plug initiates a spark that ignites the air-petrol
mixture. Combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume as shown by the line CD on p -v diagram.

Since combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume, 4-Stroke petrol engines are also called as
constant volume cycle engines. With this stroke, the crankshaft rotates by another 180° or half
revolution. The energy required for the piston movement is taken from a battery.

Power stroke (Expansion stroke or Working stroke): During this stroke, both the valves will
remain closed. As the combustion of fuel takes plac e, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force
on the piston causing it to move rapidly from the TDC to BDC. The force (or power) is transmitted to
the crankshaft through the connecting rod.

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As a result, the crankshaft rotates at high speeds. The cranks haft then transmits the power through
clutches, gears, chains, etc... To turn the wheels of the vehicle and cause it to move. The expansion of
gases is adiabatic in nature and is shown by the curve DE on p-v diagram.

Since the actual power or work is produced by the engine in this stroke, it is also called as power
stroke or working stroke. Also, expansion of gases occurs during this stroke, and hence the name
expansion stroke.

Exhaust stroke: Towards the end of the expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens , while the inlet
valve remains closed. A part of the burnt gases due to their own expansion escapes out of the cylinder
through the exhaust valve.

This drop in pressure at constant volume inside the cylinder is represented by the line EB on p -v
diagram. The exhaust stroke begins when the piston starts moving from the BDC to TDC. The energy
for this stroke is supplied by the flywheel, which it had absorbed in the previous stroke. As the piston
moves upwards, it forces the remaining burnt gases to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. The
exhaust taking place at atmospheric pressure is shown by the line BA on p-v diagram.

4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Diesel engines may be designed as either two stroke or four stroke cycles.The four stroke Diesel engine
is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning
a crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction.
Therefore, each stroke does not correspond to single t hermodynamic process given in chapter Diesel
Cycle – Processes.

Suction stroke – The piston moves from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC) and the
cycle passes points 0 → 1. In this stroke the intake valve is open while the piston pulls air (without a
fuel) into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion.

Compression stroke – The piston moves from bottom dead center (BDC) to top dead center (TDC)
and the cycle passes points 1 → 2 . In this stroke both the intake and exhaust valves are closed,
resulting in adiabatic air compression (i.e. without heat transfer to or from the environment). During
this compression, the volume is reduced, the pressure and temperature both rise. At the end of this
stroke fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air. At the end of this stroke the crankshaft has
completed a full 360-degree revolution.

Power stroke – The piston moves from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC) and the
cycle passes points 2 → 3 → 4. In this stroke both the intake and exhaust valves are closed. At the
beginning of the power stroke, a near isobaric combustion occur between 2 and 3. In this interval the
pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increase s. At 3 fuel injection and
combustion are complete, and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2. Between 3
and 4 this hot gas expands, again approximately adiabatically. In this stroke the piston is driven
towards the crankshaft, the volume in increased, and the work is done by the gas on the piston.

Exhaust stroke. The piston moves from bottom dead center (BDC) to top dead center (TDC) and the
cycle passes points 4 → 1 → 0. In this stroke the exhaust valve is open while the piston pulls an
exhaust gases out of the chamber. At the end of this stroke the crankshaft has completed a second full
360 degree revolution.

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Difference Between 4 Stroke and 2 Stroke Engine

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Difference Between Petrol and Diesel E

Applications of IC Engines:
1. Road Vehicles
IC engines power scooters, motorcycles, cars, and buses by converting fuel energy into
mechanical power to move the vehicle. They are preferred for their high performance, easy refueling,
and reliability.

2. Aircraft
Small airplanes and drones use IC engines to spin propellers and generate thrust. These engines
are lightweight and efficient, making them suitable for flight at various altitudes.

3. Locomotives
Trains use large diesel IC engines, often in a diesel-electric setup. The engine powers a
generator, which drives electric motors connected to the wheels, providing strong pulling force over
long distances.

4. Construction (Civil Engineering Equipment)

Heavy machines like bulldozers, scrapers, and power shovels use IC engines to operate
hydraulics and move equipment. These engines provide high torque needed for lifting and digging.

5. Pump Sets
In rural and agricultural areas, small IC engines are used to run water pumps for irrigation.
They are easy to transport and operate where electricity is unavailable.

6. Hospitals
Hospitals use IC engine-powered generators as a backup during power failures. T hese engines
ensure uninterrupted power supply to critical systems and life -saving equipment.

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7. Industrial Applications
IC engines drive industrial machines like generators, compressors, and forklifts. They provide
portable and reliable power in factories, warehouses, and construction sites.

8. Agriculture
IC engines are widely used in tractors, harvesters, and sprayers. They help in plowing,
harvesting, and irrigation, increasing productivity and reducing manual labor.

9. Marine
Boats and small ships use IC engines to drive propellers. They are compact, fuel-efficient, and
provide steady power for navigating rivers, lakes, and coastal waters.

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INSIGHT FOR FUTURE MOBILITY

Introduction to Electric Vehicle:

 Electric vehicles, often referred to as EVs, are an emerging and innovative type of
transportation that run on electric power instead of conventional internal combustion engines

 They represent a significant shift in the automotive industry towards sustainability and
environmental consciousness.

 Unlike traditional vehicles that rely on fossil fuels such as gasoline or diesel, EVs use electricity
stored in rechargeable batteries to power an electric motor, which drives the wheels.

Types of Electric Vehicles:

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Types of Electric Vehicle:

 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): BEVs are entirely reliant on electric power and do not
have an internal combustion engine. They run solely on electricity and produce zero tailpipe
emissions, making them a cleaner alternative to traditional vehicles.
 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): PHEVs combine an electric motor with an
internal combustion engine. They can operate in electric -only mode for shorter distances, and
the internal combustion engine kicks in for longer trips or when the battery is depleted.

 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): HEVs do not require external charging as they have a
small electric battery that is recharged through regenerative braking and the internal
combustion engine. They are not fully electric but provide improved fuel efficiency and reduced
emissions compared to conventional vehicles.

Components of Electric Vehicle:

Electric vehicles (EVs) are made up of several key components that work together to provide
a clean and efficient mode of transportation. Here are the main components of an electric vehicle:

 Battery Pack: The battery pack is a collection of rechargeable lithium-ion or other advanced
batteries. It stores electrical energy that powers the electric motor. The size and capacity of
the battery pack determine the driving range and performance of the EV.

 Electric Motor: The electric motor is the primary power source in an EV. It converts
electrical energy from the battery into mechanical energy, which drives the wheels. Electric
motors are highly efficient, quiet, and provide instant torque for rapid acceleration.

 Power Electronics: Power electronics are essential components that manage the flow of
electricity between the battery pack and the electric motor. They control the voltage and
current to ensure efficient and smooth operation of the motor.

 Onboard Charger: The onboard charger is responsible for converting alternating current
(AC) from the charging station into direct current (DC) to charge the EV's battery. It is usually

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built into the vehicle and allows for various charging levels, such as Level 1, Level 2, and
Level 3 (fast charging).

 Regenerative Braking System: Regenerative braking is a feature in EVs that recaptures

energy when the vehicle slows down or brakes. It converts some of the kinetic energy of the
moving vehicle back into electrical energy and stores it in the battery, improving overall
energy efficiency.

 Thermal Management System: EVs have a thermal management system to regulate the
temperature of the battery and other crucial components. Maintaining the optimum
temperature range ensures the battery's performance, efficiency, and lifespan.

 Electric Vehicle Controller: The electric vehicle controller is like the brain of the EV. It
manages various systems, including the battery, motor, and power electronics. The controller
also handles energy distribution and provides safety features and diagnostics.

 DC-DC Converter: The DC-DC converter takes the high-voltage DC power from the battery
and converts it to lower voltage DC power to supply electricity to auxiliary systems, such as
lights, radio, and other electronics.

 Transmission: Electric vehicles usually have a single-speed transmission or direct-drive

system. Unlike conventional vehicles with multiple gears, EVs don't require complex gear-
shifting mechanisms due to the broad torque range of electric motors.

 Vehicle Charging Port: The charging port is where the EV is connected to a charging station
or power source to recharge its battery. Different EV models use various types of charging
connectors, such as Type 1 (SAE J1772), Type 2 (IEC 62196), or CCS (Combined Charging
System).

 Vehicle Control Unit (VCU): The VCU is responsible for managing various vehicle functions,
including battery state-of-charge, energy usage, safety systems, and communication between
different vehicle components.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Electric Vehicle:

Advantages of Electric Vehicles:

 Environmental Impact: EVs produce no tailpipe emissions, which helps reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and air pollution, contributing to better air quality and mitigating climate
change.

 Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are inherently more efficient than internal combustion
engines, making EVs more energy-efficient and less wasteful during operation

 Lower Operating Costs: Electricity is generally cheaper than gasoline or diesel, leading to
lower fuel costs for EV owners. Additionally, EVs have fewer moving parts, reducing
maintenance expenses.

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 Quiet and Smooth Operation: Electric vehicles operate quietly and provide a smooth and
responsive driving experience due to the absence of engine vibrations.

Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles:

 Range Anxiety: Some consumers may be concerned about the limited driving range of
certain EV models and the availability of charging infrastructure in some regions.

 Charging Infrastructure: The need for widespread and easily accessible charging
infrastructure remains a challenge for the widespread adoption of EVs.

 Battery Technology: Advancements in battery technology are needed to increase energy

density, reduce costs, and extend the lifespan of batteries.

Introduction to Hybrid Vehicle:

Hybrid vehicles, commonly known as hybrids, are a type of automobile that combines two or
more power sources to propel the vehicle. Typically, a hybrid vehicle incorporates an internal
combustion engine (usually gasoline) and an electric motor. The integra tion of these power sources
aims to enhance fuel efficiency, reduce emissions, and improve overall performance.

There are several types of hybrid vehicles, but the most common ones include:

 Parallel Hybrid: In a parallel hybrid, both the internal combustion engine and the electric
motor can individually drive the vehicle's wheels. The power sources work in parallel, with the
engine providing power during higher demand or when the battery is depleted, and the
electric motor assisting during low-speed or lighter load conditions.

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 Series Hybrid: In a series hybrid, the internal combustion engine does not directly drive the
wheels. Instead, it serves as a generator, producing electricity to charge the battery or power
the electric motor, which in turn drives the wheels. The engine operates at its most efficient
speed, enhancing fuel efficiency.

 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): A plug-in hybrid is similar to a parallel hybrid, but
it has a larger battery pack that can be charged externally using an electric power source.
This allows the vehicle to operate for extended distances in all-electric mode, reducing the
reliance on the internal combustion engine and reducing overall emissions.

 Mild Hybrid: Mild hybrids are equipped with a smaller electric motor that assists the internal
combustion engine during acceleration or in specific driving conditions. Unlike full hybrids,
mild hybrids cannot operate solely on electric power.

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Components of Hybrid Vehicle:

 Internal Combustion Engine: The internal combustion engine is typically fueled by

gasoline, but some hybrids may use diesel or alternative fuels. It provides power during high-
demand situations and charges the battery in series hybrid configurations.

 Electric Motor: The electric motor in a hybrid vehicle assists the engine during acceleration
and low-speed driving. It also acts as a generator during regenerative braking, converting
kinetic energy back into electrical energy to recharge the battery.

 Battery Pack: The battery pack in a hybrid vehicle stores electrical energy used to power
the electric motor. In plug-in hybrids, the battery pack is larger and can be recharged from
an external power source.

 Transmission: Hybrid vehicles may have specialized transmissions to efficiently distribute

power between the internal combustion engine, electric motor, and wheels.

 Regenerative Braking System: Like in electric vehicles, hybrids have regenerative braking
systems that capture energy during braking and store it in the battery for later use.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Hybrid Vehicle:

Advantages of Hybrid Vehicles:

 Improved Fuel Efficiency: One of the main advantages of hybrid vehicles is their improved
fuel efficiency compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. The
combination of an electric motor and an internal combustion engine allows hybrids to
consume less fuel and reduce greenhouse gas emissions

 Reduced Emissions: Hybrid vehicles produce lower emissions, especially in city driving
conditions where the electric motor operates more frequently. The use of electric power
during low-speed or stop-and-go traffic helps to decrease pollutants and smog-forming
emissions.

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 Regenerative Braking: Hybrids are equipped with regenerative braking systems that
capture energy during braking and store it in the battery. This technology improves
energy efficiency and reduces wear on traditional braking components.

 Environmental Impact: By consuming less fuel and emitting fewer pollutants, hybrid
vehicles have a positive impact on the environment, helping to combat climate change and
improve air quality.

 Energy Diversification: Hybrids reduce the dependency on fossil fuels, promoting energy
diversification. The integration of electric power sources facilitates the adoption of renewable
energy sources for charging, such as solar or wind power.

 Quiet and Smooth Operation: The electric motor in hybrids provides quiet and smooth
operation, enhancing the driving experience and reducing noise pollution.

 Incentives and Tax Benefits: Many countries and regions offer incentives and tax benefits
to encourage the adoption of hybrid vehicles, such as tax credits, reduced registration fees,
and access to carpool lanes.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Vehicles:

 Higher Initial Cost: Hybrid vehicles typically have a higher upfront cost compared to their
conventional counterparts. The additional cost is due to the inclusion of the electric motor,
battery pack, and associated components.

 Limited All-Electric Range: Non-plug-in hybrid vehicles have a limited electric -only range
as the electric motor's power is limited. This limitation means that hybrids still rely on the
internal combustion engine for longer trips or higher speeds.

 Weight and Space: Hybrid systems add weight to the vehicle, primarily due to the battery
pack and associated components. This can slightly affect performance and reduce cargo
space.

 Battery Recycling and Disposal: The batteries used in hybrid vehicles contain materials
that require special recycling processes, which can be expensive and complex. Proper disposal
of old or worn-out batteries is crucial to minimize environmental impact.

 Charging Infrastructure: While plug-in hybrids can benefit from external charging, there
might still be challenges related to charging infrastructure availability and accessibility,
depending on the region.

 Maintenance Complexity: Hybrid vehicles have a more complex powertrain compared to

conventional vehicles, which can lead to higher maintenance and repair costs if specialized
expertise is required.

 Technological Advancements: Rapid advancements in battery technology and electric

vehicles may lead to faster obsolescence of hybrid technology compared to fully EV.

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