Practical No.

1
DRYING-INTRODUCTION, PRINCIPLE OF DRYING

Aim: To study about drying

Introduction:
Drying and dehydration of fruits and vegetables is an age old method to preserve
these products. Removal of the water (75-90%) present in fresh commodity results in reduction
in the water activity and ultimately resistance against most of the deteriorative agents. The
removal of water is carried out by the application of heat and this heat is usually supplied in the
form of solar energy or artificially generated hot air. Removal of moisture and exposure of heat
often results in poor textural attributes, loss in nutritive value (vitamins), discolouration and loss
of flavouring components. Although both drying and dehydration are interchangeably used,
drying is referred to removal of water to an equilibrium moisture content while dehydration is
removal of water to an almost bone dry condition.

Moisture and its removal

During drying, the moisture from solids gets vaporised and diffused in dilute environment. Removal of
moisture takes place by high pressure or high temperature conditions. Drying removes the volatile materials
present inside solid matters. In some products, drying is carried to bring down the moisture content to a
predetermined limit
Some amount of moisture present in the pore spaces of grains. Excess amount of moisture remains in
bound form with absorbing materials of the grains. Mutual reaction takes place between absorbing materials
and moisture molecules, finally the moisture chemically bounds with the chemical constituents of the food
grains. Removal of moisture from wet materials by vaporisation depends on the rate of heat and mass
transfer, which is related with the following two basic phenomenon, (1) vaporisation of moisture from
surface of material, and (2) movement of moisture from internal parts of material to its surface. Movement
of moisture takes place because of diffusion, tell contraction and vapour pressure gradient.
Mechanism of Drying

When hot air is blow over a wet food, heat is transferred to the surface and latent heat of
vaporization causes water to evaporate. Water vapours diffuse through a boundary film of air
and is carried away by the moving air. This create a region of lower water vapour pressure
gradient is established from the moist interior of the food to the dry air. The gradient provides the
driving force for water removal from the food.

Schematic diagram of movement of moisture in the interstitial spaces of food cells during
drying in fruits and vegetables

Moisture Content representation

The amount of moisture in a product is given on the basis of the weight of water present
in the product and is usually expressed in percent.
• Moisture content is designated by two methods.
(1) Wet basis (wb)
(2) Dry basis (db)
Wet basis moisture content is the amount of water per unit mass of a moist substance, defined
as:

where MC stands for moisture content, and the subscript wb designates “wet basis”.

Dry basis moisture content is the amount of water per unit mass of dry solids:

Note: The value of dry basis moisture content is more than the wet basis moisture content.
 Practical No. 2
Drying methods (Thin layer and deep bed drying)-advantages and applications in food
industry

Aim: To know about the thin layer and deep bed drying
Introduction:
Drying and dehydration of fruits and vegetables is an age old method to preserve
these products. Removal of the water (75-90%) present in fresh commodity results in
reduction in the water activity and ultimately resistance against most of the deteriorative
agents. The removal of water is carried out by the application of heat and this heat is usually
supplied in the form of solar energy or artificially generated hot air. Removal of moisture and
exposure of heat often results in poor textural attributes, loss in nutritive value
(vitamins), discolouration and loss of flavouring components. Although both drying and
dehydration are interchangeably used, drying is referred to removal of water to an equilibrium
moisture content while dehydration is removal of water to an almost bone dry condition.
Drying of agricultural products is broadly carried in thin and deep layers.

 Thin-layer drying
 Deep bed drying

Thin layer drying:

The thin-layer drying process shows the condition of nearly complete exposure of grains to heated
art The thickness of grains in thin-layer drying is normally upto 15 cm. The drying action can be
represented on the basis of Newton's law by replacing moisture content in place of temperature.

Where, M= moisture content at any time 0, % (db)

Me=EMC, % (db)
M0. initial moisture content, % (db)
K= drying constant..
Deep bed drying:

In deep bed dryers, the drying takes place in a drying zone and the layer of grains is more than 15
cm. A typical deep bed dryer is shown in below figure. At heated or drying air entry point, drying of
products starts. A drying zone is formed above the bottom layer which comes in contact of heated air.
Bulk of the drying takes place in the drying zone and this moves along the direction of drying air. In deep
bed system at a particular air flow rate, if the layer of product is more then the layer which comes in
contact with heated air first, may overdry. Therefore, it has been recommended that if the drying air is
43°C, the thickness of grain layer may be limited to 45 cm.

For analysis of deep bed drying method, it is assumed that the deep bed is formed by several thin
layers. In each thin layer, the incoming and outgoing air humidity and temperature change with time and
drying stages. This method is used to determine the drying period and the amount of water-vapour
removed from the products. Additional amount of moisture may be removed from dry layer till it attains the
equilibrium moisture content.

Deep bed drying system has been analysed by Hukill. The Hukill analysis is suitable for correlating the
drying period, product moisture and product depth factors for the solution of drying 'problems
 Practical No.3
Types of dryer – Classification (Direct, Indirect and Air dryers)

Aim: To study about types of dryers

Classification of Dryers:
S.No. Type of dryer Examples
1 Direct contact dryers  Bin dryers
 Kiln dryers
 Cabinet dryers
 Tunnel dryers
 Conveyor dryers
 Belt-trough dryers
 Spray dryer
 Fluidised bed dryers
2 Indirect contact dryers  Drum dryer
 Rotary dryer
3 Radiation dryers  Solar dryer
 Dielectric dryer
 Microwave dryer
 Infrared dryer
4 Air dryers  Dehumidifiers
 Dessicators
 Refrigerated dryers
5 Conveyor dryers  Conveyor belt dryers
6 Dryers for solids and pastes  Different types of solar dryers
 Bin dryers
 Kiln dryers
 Cabinet dryers
 Tunnel dryers
 Conveyor dryers
 Belt-trough dryers
  Fluidised bed dryers
7 Dryers for liquid materials  Spray dryers
 Drum dryers
 Fluidised bed dryers

Direct Dryers
 Direct dryers use convection to efficiently transfer heat to the material being dried, enabling
fast and uniform moisture removal. In this method, the heat carrier—such as heated air, inert
gas, or steam—makes direct contact with the product. Hot air dryers are especially common:
hot air is circulated around and through the target material, providing the latent heat
necessary to vaporize adsorbed water, which is expelled with the exhaust air.
 These dryers include rotary dryers, fluid bed dryers, and flash dryers, all of which are widely
deployed in industrial manufacturing for their energy efficiency and ability to scale up for
continuous, high-volume production. Direct continuous dryers typically achieve better heat
transfer rates than their indirect counterparts, increasing throughput, but may lead to higher
operating costs, increased energy consumption, and greater heat loss.
 Optimizing the efficiency of direct drying often involves technologies such as lifting flights
—internal blades or vanes within rotary drum dryers—which maximize product contact with
drying gases and improve agitation for superior moisture removal. Recent advances in
process automation and heat recovery systems also help lower energy usage and
environmental impact, making modern direct dryers highly competitive for bulk material
drying.
Indirect Dryers
Indirect dryers operate based on conduction, where thermal energy passes through a solid
barrier—such as drum walls, tubes, or jackets—separating the heat transfer medium (usually
steam, hot oil, or heated surfaces) from the wet material. This indirect heat transfer prevents
contamination between fuel gases and product, making these dryers ideal for drying sensitive
goods, hazardous materials, pharmaceuticals, or food products where air purity is essential.
Classical types of indirect dryers include tray dryers, vacuum dryers, and shelf dryers. Low
airflow and tightly sealed process environments minimize dust, material loss, and risk of
explosion when handling combustible products. Indirect dryers often form part of batch
operations and are prized for their versatile application in research labs, fine chemical
manufacturing, and specialty food production.
Unlike in direct drying, there is no need for mixing flights or complex gas handling mechanisms,
as product never contacts combustion gases or external air streams. This simplifies exhaust
treatment, reduces environmental emissions, and protects final product quality.
Radiant Dryers
Radiant dryers (radiation dryers) utilize electromagnetic waves—such as infrared or microwave
energy—to deliver heat directly to the surface or core of materials. Unlike conventional methods,
radiant drying is a contactless process, minimizing the risk of cross-contamination and enabling
efficient moisture removal with very low environmental impact. These systems offer fast
response times, uniform heating, and the capability to dry heat-sensitive coatings, adhesives, and
specialized industrial products.

Air Dryers
Air dryers, also known as compressed air dryers or dehumidifiers, are engineered to extract
excess moisture from ambient air in industrial settings—particularly from compressed air
systems used in pneumatic machinery, process control, or packaging operations. Ambient air
typically contains 30% to 50% relative humidity, but when compressed, its moisture content can
approach saturation (100%), introducing risks such as water condensation, corrosion, decreased
equipment performance, and contamination of sensitive products.
Efficient air drying is accomplished with technologies and equipment such as refrigerated air
dryers, desiccant dryers, and membrane dryers, among others. Methods may include lowering
the dew point of air via cooling, utilizing absorbent or adsorbent materials (such as silica gel or
activated alumina), or pressure swing adsorption to separate water vapor. Refrigerated dryers use
a heat exchanger to cool the compressed air, causing moisture to condense for removal.
Desiccant dryers pass air through moisture-absorbing materials, while membrane dryers
selectively allow water vapor to permeate through specialized fibers, resulting in ultra-dry
process air.
Routine moisture buildup is an unavoidable result of compressing and processing air, making
reliable moisture removal essential for operational safety, product quality, and regulatory
compliance. Selecting the optimal air dryer—tailored for factors like flow rate, pressure, dew
point requirements, and application-specific contaminants—ensures efficient, uninterrupted
production. Air dryer manufacturers offer expert guidance to help users choose the right
equipment and ensure efficient operation for diverse industries including automotive, electronics,
food processing, and pharmaceuticals.

Conveyor Dryers
Conveyor dryers are state-of-the-art systems for continuous drying of bulk materials, food
products, textiles, granules, and powder. Using a conveyor belt—typically mesh or webbed—
these dryers transport products through zones of controlled temperature, humidity, and air
velocity, ensuring even and rapid moisture removal. The conveyor design permits optimal
airflow both above and below the material, promoting fast drying while limiting product
degradation.
Modern conveyor dryers adopt multi-stage or multi-pass designs. Products may transition from
one belt level to another—often via gravity—to allow for variable residence times, which
enhances the uniformity of drying, especially valuable for sensitive food products and
vegetables. Airflow is carefully engineered through turbine fans or precision nozzles, delivering
adjustable drying profiles for a wide range of materials, from low to high viscosity.
Energy savings, minimized labor intervention, scalability, and the ability to integrate with
upstream or downstream conveyors make this category essential for high-throughput industrial
manufacturing, food dehydration, powder coatings, and fabricated parts.
Practical No.4
 TRAY DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES; ITS
APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Aim: To study drying of fruits in tray dryer

Introduction:
Tray dryers are used for batch drying of solid foods at small to moderate scale (say, 2000
to 20 000 kg per day). Tray dryers consist of a closed compartment in which are placed trays
containing the food to be dried. The trays rest on shelves with adequate spacing between them.
Heated dry air circulates between the shelves. Very often, tray bottoms are slatted or perforated,
in order to provide some air flow also through the trays. The drying rate, hence the moisture
content of the material, depends on its position on the tray. The material located closest to the
entrance of dry air has the lowest moisture content. In order to secure more uniform drying, the
direction of air flow may be reversed or the trays may be rotated periodically.
Principle:
The working principle of a tray dryer is based on the circulation of heated air over
material placed in trays, which helps to remove moisture from the material through evaporation.
Air inlet temperatures are usually in the range of 60–80 °C. Air velocity is a few m/s and must be
adjusted according to the size, shape and density of the food particles.
Flow chart for drying of fruit/vegetable slices in tray drier
Fruit/vegetable

Sorting

Washing

Separation of seeds

Peeling

Slicing
 Pre-treatment

Drying

Packing
Procedure:
 Take fresh fruit/vegetable and sort them and wash to remove the dust particles on the
surface.
 Fruits are cut by a special slicing machine into slices at light angles to the core hole and
inch thick.
 It is dipped into ascorbic acid solution or if the fruits is sulphured, it should be spread
upon the trays in the cabinet drier to a uniform depth.
 This slices are kept in the tray dryer for drying.
 The dried fruit slices are stored.
Observation:
 Initial weight of fruit :
Temperature in Tray drier (0C) :
Time taken for drying :
Final weight of dried fruit slices :
Moisture content in dried fruit slices :
 Initial weight of vegetable :
Temperature in Tray drier (0C) :
Time taken for drying :
Final weight of vegetable slices :
Moisture content in dried vegetable slices :

Practical No.5
CABINET DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES;
ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Aim: To study drying of fruits/vegetables in cabinet dryer

Introduction:
A cabinet dryer is essentially a larger enclosed chamber containing multiple trays, where
the entire unit is considered the “cabinet”. A cabinet dryer is a system with multiple trays, while
a tray dryer is just one of those individual trays within the cabinet. This is a multi-purpose,
batch-operated hot air drier. It consists of an insulated cabinet, equipped with a fan, an air heater
and space occupied by trays of food. In Cabinet dryers, food may be loaded on trays or pans in
comparatively thin layers up to a few centimetres. Cabinet driers are usually for small operations.
They are comparatively inexpensive and easy to set in terms of drying conditions. They may run
up to 25 trays high and operate with air temperatures of about 95°C dry bulb and with air
velocities of about 2.5-5m/sec across the trays. They commonly are used to dry fruit and
vegetable pieces, and depending on the food and the desired final moisture, drying time may be
of the order of 10 or even 20 hours.
Principle:
Fresh air enters the cabinet by the fan through the heater coils, and is then blown across
the food trays to exhaust. Here, the air is heated by the indirect method. Screens filter out any
dust that may be in the air. The air passes across and between the trays in some designs, whereas
some other designs have perforated trays and the air may be directed up through these. The air is
exhausted to the atmosphere after one pass rather than being re-circulated within the system. Re-
circulation is used to conserve heat energy by reusing part of the warm air.
Flow chart for drying of fruit/vegetable slices in cabinet drier
Fruit/vegetable

Sorting

Washing

Separation of seeds
 Peeling

Slicing

Pre-treatment

Drying

Packing
Procedure:
 Take fresh fruit/vegetable and sort them and wash to remove the dust particles on the
surface.
 Fruits are cut by a special slicing machine into slices at light angles to the core hole and
inch thick.
 It is dipped into ascorbic acid solution or if the fruits is sulphured, it should be spread
upon the trays in the cabinet drier to a uniform depth.
 This slices are kept in the cabinet dryer for drying.
 The dried fruit slices are stored.
Observation:
i) Initial weight of fruit :
Temperature in cabinet drier (0C) :
Time taken for drying :
Final weight of dried fruit slices :
Moisture content in dried fruit slices :
ii) Initial weight of vegetable :
Temperature in cabinet drier (0C) :
Time taken for drying :
Final weight of vegetable slices :
Moisture content in dried vegetable slices :
Practical No.6
SOLAR DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES; ITS
APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Aim: To study the drying of fruits/vegetables in solar dryer

Introduction:
Solar energy is one of the most promising renewable energy sources in the world
compared to non-renewable sources for the purpose of drying of agriculture and industrial
products. Solar drying refers to methods of using sun`s energy for drying, but excludes upon air
sun drying. The justification for solar driers is that they are more effective than sun drying, but
have lower operating costs than mechanized driers.
Principle:
Solar dryer works on the two principles:
i). Conservation of energy: One form of energy is converted into other form of energy.
ii). Black body: It absorbs the heat of the incident sunlight and makes the temperature of
chamber more than the surrounding temperature.
The solar dryer is based on the principle of flat plate solar collector and greenhouse
effect. The solar radiation fall on the transparent glass sheet and enter the collector and get
converted into long wave thermal radiations, which is not transparent to glass surface and thus
these get trapped inside and increase the inside temperature to a great extent.
Procedure:
 Choose ripe, fresh, and undamaged fruits and wash the fruits thoroughly to remove dirt,
pesticides, and other contaminants.
 Peel (if required) and cut the fruits into uniform pieces.
 Some fruits, like apples or bananas, may oxidize and turn brown when exposed to air. To
prevent this, dip the fruit slices in a solution of water and lemon juice or ascorbic acid
(vitamin C).
 Blanch certain fruits like peaches or apricots before drying to stop enzymatic
degradation. This can be done by dipping them in boiling water for 1-2 minutes and then
quickly transferring them into cold water.
 Lay the prepared fruit slices or pieces evenly on the drying trays. Do not overcrowd the
trays; leave space between the pieces for airflow.
  Ensure that the pieces are not touching each other to allow proper airflow around each
piece.
 Insert the trays into the solar dryer.
 Drying is most effective when the sun is strong and there is little humidity. The
temperature inside the dryer should be around 55-60°C (130-140°F) for optimal drying.
 Depending on the type of fruit and the thickness of the slices, the drying process can take
anywhere from 6-12 hours or longer. Check periodically for progress.
 Rotate or stir the fruits if necessary, ensuring all pieces are drying evenly.
 After drying, let the fruits cool down to room temperature.
 Once cooled, store the dried fruits in airtight containers, vacuum-sealed bags, or glass jars
to preserve them for a longer shelf life.
Advantages of solar dryer

 Less product contamination with a transparent cover.

 Protection from rain, dew, and debris.
 Higher product quality than open sun drying.
 Simple and cost-effective construction.
Disadvantages of solar dryer

 Solar drying can only happen on sunny days unless it’s combined with a regular energy-
based system.
 Solar dryers are slower than those using conventional fuels due to limited solar energy
collection.
 They are typically used for drying at temperatures between 40-50 degrees Celsius.
 Poor product quality than other mechanical dryers.

Observations:
1). Initial weight of raw fruit :
 Temperature in solar drier (0C) :
Time taken for drying :
Final weight of dried fruit slices :
Moisture content of dried fruit slices :
2). Initial weight of vegetable :
Temperature in solar drier (0C) :
Time taken for drying :
Final weight of dried vegetable slices :
Moisture content in dried vegetable slices :

Practical No. 7
SPRAY DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES; ITS
APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Aim: Drying of foods by spray drying.

Introduction:
Spray drying is widely used in the food industry for the production of powders. It is the
process in which liquid is transformed into dried particles by spraying the feed into hot drying
air. The feed can either be a solution, suspension or paste. It is generally used to prepare milk,
coffee and fruit juice powder.
Principle:
There are three fundamental steps involved in spray drying.
1) Atomization of a liquid feed into fine droplets.
2) Mixing of these spray droplets with a heated gas stream, allowing the liquid to evaporate and
leave dried solids.
3) Dried powder is separated from the gas stream and collected.
Spray drying involves the atomization of a liquid feedstock into a spray of droplets and
contacting the droplets with hot air in a drying chamber.
Procedure for the preparation of any leaf powder

Collected fresh leaves

Grading

Washing with tap water

Cutting into small pieces

Extraction of juice using INTEX mixer grinder

leaf juice Solid waste

Addition of maltodextrin at 8 %, 10 % and 12% w/v

 Spray drying at 130 oC, 140 oC and 150 oC

Leaf powder

Stored in aluminium laminated

polyethylene covers

Preparation of any leaf powder

Observations:
1. Moisture content of powder:
 Practical No. 8
FREEZE DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES;
ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Aim: Drying of foods by freeze drying.

Introduction:
Freeze-drying is a process in which water is sublimated by the direct transition of water
from solid (ice) to vapor, thus omitting the liquid state, and then desorbing water from the “dry”
layer.
Principle:
Freeze-drying, also known as lyophilization, is a process in which water in the form of ice under
low pressure is removed from a material by sublimation. This process has found many
applications for the production of high quality food.
Procedure:
Freeze drying of Meat:
The meat are frozen into block shapes and are kept frozen at -20° C until it is transfer to
the cutting and sizing processing room, where the frozen blocks are cut into appropriately sized
pieces in preparation for the dicing machine.
At the dicing stage, the meat blocks are feed into a stainless steel sizing machine where
they are cut into desire finished sizes, then weighed and spread evenly onto trays, and then
reflash frozen at -35 °C.
Now the product is ready to freeze dry. The trays are placed on a dolly that slides into the
freeze drying chamber where the process takes up to 9 hrs.
After freeze drying, a last step prior to packing for shipment, the freeze dried meat cubes
are sieved to filter out any undesired pieces.
Freeze drying food preservation technology has been long regarded as the best possible to
preserve the nutrients in the food the benefits are multi-fold in the food retails its original
characteristic, nutrient values, color form and size.
Freeze dried foods don’t need to be refrigerated or preserved with chemicals can be
reconstituted quickly and easily by added water.
Applications:
 Freeze-drying is used to dry high-value foods that have delicate aromas or textures.
Examples include coffee, mushrooms, herbs and spices, strawberries and raspberries, fruit juices,
meats, sea foods or vegetables
Observation:
Initial weight food :
Temperature of frozen food (-20 to -30 0C) :
Primary drying temperature :
Secondary drying temperature :
Vacuum in freeze drier (m bar) :
Final weight of freeze dried food :
Moisture content in freeze dried food :
 Practical 9
ROLLER DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES;
ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Aim:
To explain drying of semi solid foods using roller dryers.
Introduction:
The semi solid foods have the qualities of both a solid and liquid, highly viscous . The
semi solid foods are foods balanced into a smooth and fine lightly liquid in consistency. The
roller dryers are used to dry semi solid foods like purees, liquids foods, pastes and mashes,
potato mash , tomato paste.
Principle:
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of moisture or another solvent
by evaporation from a solid, semi solid or liquid . It is mainly used to increase the shelf life of
foods.
Procedure:
In roller drying, liquid foods, purees, pastes and mashes are applied in a thin layer onto the
surface of revolving heated drums.
 The drum generally is heated by the steam.
 Dryers may have a single drum or a pair of drums.
 The food may be applied between the nip, where two drums come together then the
clearance between the drums determines the thickness of the applied food layer or the
food can be applied to other areas of the drum.
 Food is applied continually end the thin layer losses moisture.
 At a point on the drum or drums a scraper blade is positioned to peel the thin dry layer of
food from the drums.
 The speed of the drums is so regulated that the layer of food will be dry when it reaches
the scraper blade also referred to as doctor blade.
 The layer of food is dried in one revolution of the drum end is scrapped from the drum
before that positioned of the drum returns to the point where more wet food is applied.
 Using steam under pressure in the drum , the temperature of the drum surface may be
well above 100°C , end often is held at about 1500C .
  The food layer thickness commonly less than 2mm , drying can be completed in 1min or
less , depending on food material.
 Typical product drier on drums are milk, potato mash, heat tolerate purees such as
tomato paste and animal feeds.
 To achieve rapid drying the surface temperature must be high, usually above 1200 C.

Principle of Drum Dryer or Roller dryer:

In the drum dryer principle, we use a heated hollow metal drum that rotates on its
longitudinal axis. The drum is partially immersed in the solution to be dried. It is a
simple and effective method that ensures proper drying of the material. The solution is
carried as a film on the surface of the dryer and dries to form a layer that is collected.
Construction of Drum Dryer or Roll Dryer:

 The drum dryer, a moving bed dryer, is constructed using cast iron and
stainless steel materials.
 The MOC of the drum dryer has durability, cleanliness, and resistance to chemical
attacks.
 It consists of a hollow steel drum of about 0.75 to 1.5 m in diameter and 2.4 m in
length.
  It is heated internally, usually by steam, and rotates in its longitudinal axis.
 The external surface of the drum is polished for long sustainability.
 For drying purposes, the materials are fed into the pan.
 The drum is partially dipped in the pan.
 Spreader is used in spreading liquid film eventually on a drum roller.
 The drum is rotated continuously and its speed is adjusted so that all the liquid is
fully vaporized.
 Dried deposited or material can be scraped off with the help of a knife and
collected in a storage bin.

Double Drum Dryer:

 It is utilized for low to medium-viscous materials.

 Two drums are provided to rotate in opposite directions.
  The product is fed in between these two drums and the distance is adjusted as per
to get desired material.
b. Vacuum Drum Dryer:
 A vacuum dryer allows for drying at lower temperatures by operating under
vacuum conditions.
 In a Vacuum drum dryer, two steam-heated drums rotate within an airtight casing
under a high vacuum.
 The liquid is introduced between the drums from the top, dried, and then scraped
off before the drums complete a full rotation.
 There is no accumulation of product residues, and no material recirculation
occurs.
 It is very easy to inspect and maintain.
 It is useful for heat-sensitive products and the low-temperature evaporation of
solvents. Vacuum dryers provide careful treatment for feed materials, preserving
thermolabile substances like enzymes and proteins and preventing protein
denaturation.

Working of Drum Dryer:

Single Drum Dryer:
 In a single drum dryer, the drum body is heated internally by steam.
 The heat due to steam is transferred by conduction to the materials.
 As we rotate the drum, the liquid materials in the feed pan stick to the drum’s
outer surface, forming a thin layer.
 Then materials get dried which is scrapped by the knife which then fall into a
storage bin.
Double Drum Dryer:
 In a double-drum dryer, the liquid to be dried is fed into the space between the
two drums.
 Then the drum starts to rotate in the opposite direction.
 The contact time between the material and the hot metal surfaces is typically only
6 to 15 seconds
  After that, a knife on each drum removes the dry product.
Advantages of Drum Dryer or Roll Dryer:
 Drying takes place in less time
 Suitable for thermosensitive drugs.
 Occupies less space.
 A vacuum chamber can enclose the drum to lower drying temperatures.
 Rapid drying takes place due to fast heat and mass transfer.

Disadvantages of Drum Dryer or Roll Dryer:

 High maintenance costs.
 Requires skilled operators to control film thickness, rotation speed, and
temperature.
 Not ideal for products with low solubility.

Drum Dryer Applications Across Food Categories

Dairy Products: Transforming Liquid Milk into Shelf-Stable Ingredients

In dairy processing, drum dryers play a crucial role in producing a variety of ingredients that
form the backbone of many food formulations:

 Milk powders: While spray drying dominates bulk milk powder production, drum dryers excel
in specialized applications where instant solubility or agglomerated properties are required.
 Cheese powder production: Drum dryers can process cheese concentrates into flavorful, easily
dispersible powders for snack seasonings, sauces, and ready meals.
 Yogurt powders: The drum drying process preserves many of the sensory properties of yogurt
while creating shelf-stable powder formats.
 Dairy-based infant formula components: Certain specialized ingredients benefit from the
unique structural modifications achieved through drum drying.
The ability to handle high-fat dairy products without significant cleaning challenges makes food-
grade drum dryers particularly valuable in cheese processing applications. Modern dairy-focused
drum dryer systems incorporate specialized feeding mechanisms and surface treatments that
prevent protein build-up and facilitate effective cleaning protocols.
 Fruit and Vegetable Processing: Preserving Flavor and Nutrition
The fruit and vegetable sector has embraced drum drying technology for multiple applications:

 Potato flakes for instant mashed potatoes: Perhaps the most recognized drum-dried food
product, these flakes require precise control of gelatinization and film formation that only drum
drying can efficiently provide.
 Fruit purees and powders: Drum drying preserves color, flavor, and nutritional compounds
while creating shelf-stable fruit ingredients for snacks, cereals, and confectionery.
 Vegetable powders: From tomato powder to pumpkin and carrot ingredients, drum drying
creates versatile vegetable ingredients with good color retention and reconstitution properties.
 Soup and sauce bases: Pre-gelatinized vegetable starches and vegetable concentrates form the
foundation of many convenience food applications.
The drum drying process is particularly valued in fruit applications for its ability to maintain
natural pigmentation and flavor compounds better than some alternative technologies. For
vegetables containing high starch content, the simultaneous gelatinization and drying creates
unique functional properties impossible to achieve with other drying methods.

Cereal and Grain Processing: Creating Functional Ingredients

Cereal manufacturers rely on drum dryers to create:

 Pre-gelatinized flours and starches: These instantly soluble ingredients provide thickening and
texture in various food applications without cooking.
 Cereal-based baby foods: The controlled gelatinization process creates easily digestible,
instantly reconstitutable baby cereals.
 Specialty grain ingredients: Ancient grains and alternative cereal sources can be processed into
highly functional ingredients.
 Breakfast cereal components: Many ready-to-eat cereals incorporate drum-dried ingredients for
texture and nutritional enhancement.
The versatility of drum dryers allows manufacturers to process various grain-based slurries with
different viscosities and solids content, making them ideal for product development and
innovation in the cereal category.
 Functional Food Ingredients: Supporting Health and Wellness Products
The growing functional food sector leverages drum drying technology for:

 Protein concentrates: Plant and dairy proteins can be transformed into more soluble,
application-friendly formats.
 Fiber ingredients: Certain dietary fibers benefit from the structural modifications achieved
through drum drying.
 Probiotic carriers: When configured for lower-temperature operation, drum dryers can create
protective matrices for probiotic cultures.
 Nutritional beverage bases: Instantly dispersible nutritional formulations rely on the unique
properties of drum-dried ingredients.

Observation:
Initial moisture content in food :
Type of roller (single or pair of rollers) :
Gap between pair of rollers (mm) :
Temperature of the roller surface :
RPM of roller :
Final moisture content in dried food :

Practical No. 10
FLUIDIZED BED DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES; ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Aim: To study the drying characteristics of a given material in a fluidized bed dryer.
Introduction:
The fluidised bed drying technique holds an important position among modern drying methods. It is
used mainly for granular materials, nevertheless, it is also applicable in the drying of solutions, pastes and
liquids sprayed onto the fluidised inert bed.
Working principle:
The principle of operation of fluidised bed dryer is to provide sufficient air pressure to fluidise a
thin bed of grain/product, giving excellent air/grain contact Above a certain pressure, related to the weight
per unit area of the grain bed, the pressure drop across the bed becomes constant with volume flow rate, so
that fast drying can occur. The drying method is based on ventilating hot air through the bed of product
kept on the support grid or the gas distributor. When the air velocity becomes higher than the critical
fluidisation velocity, the bed progressively expands until it reaches a state that of boiling liquid. This
phenomenon is called fluidization.

Advantages:
 Fluidity of bed facilitates continuous and easy equipment performance even on very large
scale plants.
 Lack of moving parts.
 Very good condition for heat and mass transfer.
 Provides good mixing i.e. uniformity of drying of the material in the bed.
Disadvantages:
 While efficient, the initial energy requirement for fluidizing the bed can be high,
especially in large-scale operations.
 The technology is most effective with powders and small particles. Larger or irregularly
shaped materials might not fluidize properly and could lead to uneven drying.
 Fine powders or sticky materials can cause clogging of the bed or fouling in the
equipment, which can lead to maintenance issues and lower efficiency.
 Fluidized bed dryers can be more complex and costly to install and maintain compared to
other drying methods, like tray or conveyor dryers.
Procedure
 Select the vegetable seeds and clean it thoroughly with screen cleaners.
  Seeds are pre-conditioned to improve drying quality.
 Loading the seeds into fluidized bed dryer.
 Adjust the drying parameters of dryer like temperature, air flow rate and humidity.
 The air should be heated gradually to the set temperature (usually between 40°C to
50°C).
 As the hot air passes through the seeds, they should begin to fluidize, meaning the seeds
will be suspended in the air, moving gently around. This ensures uniform drying.
 The drying time varies based on the moisture content of the seeds and the airflow
settings. Generally, the drying process for vegetable seeds can take from 1 to 4 hours,
depending on seed type and moisture content.
 The dried seeds are stored.
Observations:
 Initial weight of seeds :
 Final weight of dried seeds :
 Moisture content in dried seeds :

Practical No. 11
PNEUMATIC DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES; IT’S APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Aim: To know about the working of pneumatic dryer.
Introduction:
Drying is a separation process that converts a wet solid, semisolid, or liquid feedstock into a
solid product by evaporation of the liquid into a vapour phase with the application of heat.
Drying is a separation process that converts a wet solid, semisolid, or liquid feedstock
into a solid product by evaporation of the liquid into a vapor phase with the application of
heat. Essential features of the drying process are phase change and production of a solid.
One of the most widely used drying systems is flash drying and is also known as pneumatic
drying. Flash dryers are most commonly direct drying units and are also known as
convective dryers. Pneumatic or flash dryers may be classified as gas–solid transport systems
that are characterized by continuous convective heat and mass transfer processes.
Working principle:

A simple pneumatic flash drying system in which particulate solids are dried during
transport in a hot gas stream (usually air or combustion gases). The simple flash drying
system includes six basic components: the gas heater, the wet material feeder, the drying duct,
the separator, exhaust fan, and a dried product collector. The wet particles are fed into the
hot gas stream sometimes with special mixing devices. The stream flows up the drying tube.
The gas velocity must be greater than the free fall velocity of the largest particle to be dried.
The gas velocity in relation to the particle velocity is high. Thermal contact between the
conveying air and the solids is usually very short and therefore flash dryers are most suitable
for removal of external moisture (surface moisture) and are less suitable for removal of
internal moisture. At the end of the drying process a dust separation arrangement is
installed. It must comply with the regulations for pollution control. For this purpose cyclone
dust sep- arators, fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubbers, and fabric filters
are used.

Advantages
 Short contact time and parallel flow make possible to dry thermolabile
materials.
 The dryer needs only a very small area and can be installed outside a
building. However, the gas cleaning system should be located inside the
building in order to avoid moisture and dust deposition.
  The dryer is easy to control. The low material content in the dryer enables
equilibrium conditions to be reached very quickly.
 Due to small number of moving parts the maintenance cost is low.
 The capital costs are low in comparison with other types of dryers.
 Simultaneous drying and transportation is useful for materials handling
process.
Disadvantages

 High efficiency of gas cleaning system is required.

 Because of powder emission, the dryer cannot be used for toxic materials.
 In some cases this disadvantage can be avoided using superheated steam as
a drying agent.
 For lumped materials difficult to disperse, drying is impossible to carry out
in this apparatus.
 There is a risk of fire and explosion, so care must be taken to avoid
flammability limits in the dryer.
 In general, especially when recirculation is applied, not all material particles have
the same residence time in the dryer.

Draw and label the parts of pneumatic dryer

 Practical No. 12
MICROWAVE DRYING: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES; ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Aim: To study about drying of fruits by microwave drying.
Introduction:
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation that falls on the frequency between
300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz with wavelengths ranging from 1 millimeter to 1 meter. The
permissible frequency for commercial and domestic application of microwave is 915 MHz and
2,450 MHz respectively.
Principle:
Mechanism of microwave heating is known as Dielectric heating. The important basic
principles involved in microwave heating are ionic polarization and dipole rotation.
Ionic polarization:
As soon as the microwaves absorbed by the food material containing ions, the ion
molecules move at very high speed due to their innate charge. This oscillation causes collisions
between the charged particles with adjacent molecules or atoms, which are responsible for
generation of heat energy.
Dipole rotation:
Food materials contain water as main constituents. Since water is a dipolar molecule and
containing two hydrogen atoms being more positive and single negative oxygen atom are
oriented randomly. When an electromagnetic field is applied, the water molecules orient
themselves according to the polarity of the field. This molecular rotation creates friction with the
bounded medium leads to heat generation. The polarity changes 2.45 billion cycles per second at
2,450 MHz frequencies.
Advantages of microwave heating
1. The heating generates high temperature inside the food product than in the surface which
enhances uniform cooking.
2. Microwave heating generates volumetric and uniform heating.
3. Best suitable for versatile applications.
4. The quality of the processed products, flavor enhancement and microbial control are possible
in microwave heating.
5. Microwaves generate instantaneous heat intensifies the process hence saving time and energy.
Applications:
Microwave heating has wide range of applications in food processing like baking, sterilization,
drying, thawing and tempering, roasting and blanching. Microwave drying has already been
applied to various products, i.e., fish, instant noodles, potato cubes, amaranth leaves, bitter
melon, and sweet potato chips.
Procedure
 Take fresh vegetables and wash to remove the dust particles on the surface.
 Slice the vegetables into even, uniform slices, about ¼ to ½ inch thick.
 Place the vegetable slices on a microwave-safe plate or dish in a single layer.
 Adjust the power setting and time based on the oven conditions.
 Check for microwave doneness.
Observations:
 Initial weight of sample :
 Drying Temperature :
 Drying Time :
 Final weight of sample :
 Moisture content in dried product :

Practical No.13
HYBRID DRYING-WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES;
ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Aim: To study about the working of hybrid drying.
Introduction:
The main objective of food drying is preservation; however, the choice of drying method
can significantly alter the characteristics and quality of the final product. The primary motivation
behind developing hybrid drying technologies is to minimize product degradation while
achieving the desired moisture content. It is essential to consider the impact on food quality
parameters when utilizing different drying mechanisms to produce high-quality dried products.
Hybrid drying in food processing involves the strategic integration of multiple drying techniques
to enhance efficiency, improve product quality, and minimize energy consumption compared to
traditional single-method drying processes. This innovative approach combines conventional
methods like convective (hot air) drying with advanced technologies such as infrared (IR) or
microwave (MW) drying, leveraging the unique benefits of each method to achieve superior
results.
Classification of Hybrid drying
Hybrid drying technology are often defined as processes that utilizes two or more drying
stages, multiple heat transfer modes and also two or more types of dryers to achieve the product
quality, desired dryness, manufacturing throughput and drying time. The following flowchart
depicts general classification of hybrid drying technology.

Hybrid drying technologies

Multiple stage drying Combined drying Multiple process drying

- Different drier type at each - Microwave convective -Drying & granulation

stage drying
 Fluid bed/ spray
 Packed bed/ fluid bed
 Fluid bed/flash

-Similar drier type at each - Microwave freeze drying -Drying & filtration
stage
 -Two stage vibro fluid
beds
 -Two stage fluid beds

- Different drying -Infrared convective drying -Drying & cooling

technologies per stage
 -Superheated steam
drying and then
convective air drying
 -Microwave/Infrared
drying and then
convective drying
-Infrared heat pump -Drying & coating

Classification of hybrid drying technologies

Microwave with hot air drying
Hot air drying is a time- and energy-intensive process. Prolonged exposure to high
temperatures can lead to the loss of vitamins, nutrients, and heat-sensitive bioactive compounds,
while also causing solute migration to the surface of the food, resulting in case hardening. On the
other hand, microwave drying is energy-intensive and involves high capital and operating costs.
Combining microwave (MW) and hot air (HA) drying minimizes the drawbacks of both
methods. This hybrid drying approach is gaining popularity in the food industry due to its
efficiency. It significantly reduces drying time by accelerating energy transfer to the evaporation
point within the food structure, even as it moves internally. Microwaves drive moisture from the
center to the surface of the food, where it is effectively removed by the airflow of the hot air
dryer.
Microwave with Freeze drying
Freeze-drying is a technique in which water undergoes sublimation, directly transitioning
from the solid (ice) phase to the vapor phase. This process bypasses the liquid phase and
concludes with the desorption of residual water from the dry layer. This is an energy intensive
method but it is justified when subjected to high-value products such as cocoa, coffee beans and
nutraceutical herbs. The main limitations of this method are cost-intensive, time consuming and
low dehydration rate. Despite its cost-intensive, this drying process is the most popular for
products that are sensitive to heat because of its well-known ability to preserve the food's color,
macro and micronutrients, antioxidants, and functional properties. Conjuncting freeze drying
method with microwave drying accentuates its efficacy by minimizing its drawbacks related to
energy efficiency, time duration and cost. Because microwaves employs volumetric heating,
using them in conjunction with freeze drying shortens the drying time compared to freeze drying
alone. Figure 6.2 shows the process flow in microwave assisted freeze drying

Applying microwave energy

Food sample
Freezing of food in conjunction with vaccum
atmosphere around the
frozen food sample

Sublimation upto temperature

Process flow in microwave assisted freeze drying
below melting point of frozen
Merits of hybrid drying technologies state
 Improved efficiency and energy savings
 Enhanced product quality
 Flexibility and adaptability
  Reduction in post-harvest losses
 Year-round operation
Demerits of hybrid drying technologies
 Complexity and high initial costs
 Maintenance requirements
 Skill and training needs:
 Dependency on external factors
 Space requirements
 Risk of overdrying or underdrying

Applications of hybrid drying systems on agricultural products

Hybrid drying systems, which typically combine different drying techniques such as
conventional air drying, solar drying, microwave drying, and others, offer several advantages for
drying agricultural products like fruits and vegetables, grains, dairy, and meat products.

Observation:
Type of Hybrid Initial Drying Final weight Moisture
product drying weight temperature content
method

Practical No. 14
FOAM MAT DRYING: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES; ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Aim: To preserve any fruit pulp by foam-mat drying.
Introduction:
Most of the fruits are highly perishable with a limited shelf life and is susceptible to
mechanical damage during post-harvest handling and transportation. Therefore, the conversion
of the fruit into powder could be useful not only to reduce the post-harvest losses but also to
retain nutritional quality in the processed products. Processed food products from fruits are
highly desirable and dehydrated fruits can be used in many food product formulations.
In this drying process, a liquid material is converted into foam that is stable by being
whipped after adding an edible foaming agent. The stable foam is then spread out in sheet or mat
and dried by using hot air (40-90°C) at atmospheric pressure. Methyl cellulose (0.25-2%), egg
white (3-20%), maltodextrin (0.5-05%), and gum Arabic (2-9%) are the commonly utilized
additives for the foam-mat drying process at the given range, either combined together for their
effectiveness or individual effect. The foam-mat drying process is suitable for heat sensitive,
viscous, and sticky products.
Principle:

Foam-mat drying is a process in which a liquid or semisolid material is converted into a

stable foam by incorporating substantial volume of air or other inert gases in the presence of a
foaming agent, which works as a foam inducer and or stabilizer. The foam thus formed is spread
as a thin mat or sheet and exposed to a stream of hot air until it is dried to the required moisture
level.
Procedure:
 Fruits were washed with water to remove dirt and foreign matter, if any.
 After manual grading for uniform size and shape, only sound, blemish free fruits were
taken for extracting pulp.
 Pulp was homogenized using domestic mixer after peeling of skin and stone removal.
 Sample size of 300 g in triplicate was agitated using hand blender at 18000rpm.
 Egg white (EW) @ 0, 3, 5, 7 and 9 % was added to develop the foam which increases
surface area due to air incorporation.
 Foamed pulp was spread in food grade stainless steel trays and dried in tray dryer at three
different drying air temperatures of 65, 75 and 85 oC.
  Weight loss was measured after every half an hour to determine drying rate and other
drying parameters.
 Peeled mats were reversed and dried for another half an hour in order to reduce moisture
content of the mats below 3 %. The dried mats were pulverized and packed.

Observation:
Initial weight of sample :
Drying Temperature :
Drying Time :
Final weight of sample :
Moisture content in dried product :

Practical No. 15
CONVEYOR DRYER: WORKING PRINCIPLE, ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES;
ITS APPLICATIONS IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Introduction:
A conveyor belt dryer is a kind of drying equipment for batch continuous production
which is heated by electric heating, steam heating, and hot air. It is using steel mesh as a
conveyor belt to carry materials for continuous drying.
The machine mainly conveys the materials directly to the flat conveyor through the conveyor.
The material is evenly distributed on the dryer through the scraper at the upper end of the flat
conveyor. This can improve the air permeability of the material to better achieve the drying
effect.
Working principle:
The main principle of a continuous belt dryer is to lay the material evenly and flatly on
the mesh belt. The mesh belt dragged by the transmission device to move back and forth in the
conveyor belt dryer, the hot air passes through the material and the water vapor is discharged
from the moisture discharge hole, so as to achieve the purpose of drying. The length of the box is
combined with standard sections. In order to save space, the conveyor dryer can be made into
multi-layer type.
Advantages
 Food samples have very intimate contact with air/gas stream.
 Good for heat sensitive products and products requiring long residence times.
 Energy efficient due to recycling of process air Multiple zones offer flexibility for
temperature and process control.
 Minimal handling of food product.
 Unit can have integral cooling section.
Disadvantages
 High temperature units can be troublesome.
 Belt tracking can be problematic.
 Belt may clog, requires frequent cleaning.

Write about the process parameters that affect the conveyor drying in fruits and
vegetables.
 Practical No. 16
MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION METHODS-HOT AIR OVEN METHOD,
INFRARED METHOD
Aim: To know about the methods for determination of moisture content.
Introduction:
The moisture content of food grains and other agricultural products plays an important
role in maintaining the desirable quality of the product. Changes in moisture content of a
agricultural material occur during their harvesting, processing and marketing. The change in
moisture content during successive post-harvest stages is dependent upon the initial moisture
content of product and atmospheric conditions.
There are several methods for determination of Moisture content of
agricultural products. For determination of Moisture content of a particular product, the
choice of method depends on many factors, they are:
 The form in which water is present in the product
 The relative amount of water present
 The rapidity of determination
 Accuracy of method
 Products nature whether easily oxidised or decomposed
 The cost of equipment used.
Moisture content determination methods
Hot air oven method:

Procedure

1. The container was dried for 30 min at 103±1°C in the oven and then the container was
cooled in desiccator to room temperature.
2. The container weight was recorded as w1.
3. 10 g sample was placed in the container, the sample and container was weighed and
initial weight, w2 was recorded.
4. The sample and container was placed in the oven for 16 h at 103±1 °C.
5. The sample with the container was removed from the oven and it was cooled in the
desiccator to room temperature.
6. After that, the sample with the container was removed from the desiccator and weighed
immediately, and weigh, w3 was recorded.

The percent moisture in the analysis sample was calculated as follows;

 (W 2−W 3)
Moisture in analysis sample, % = ×100
(W 2−W 1)
Where,
w1 = weight of container, g
w2 = weight of container and sample before drying, g
w3 = weight of container and sample after drying, g.
Infra-red method:
 In this method, grain moisture content is directly measured by evaporation of the water
from a sample of grain with an infra- red heating lamp.
 The instrument consists of a balance, a pan counter balanced by a fixed weight and a
variable length of weighing chain.
 A scale calibrated in percentage moisture content is incorporated in the stem of the
instrument.
 The sample of grains may be unground, but when ground sample is used, the time
needed to evaporate the water is reduced.
Observations:
 Initial weight of fruit :
 Final weight of dried fruit slices :
 Moisture content in dried fruit slices :

Methods of Calculating Moisture Content

Two methods are used to express the moisture content of materials: wet basis
 and dry basis moisture content.

When performing these calculations, it is assumed that the sample loses only
water and that the weight of the dry matter remains constant.

Wet Basis Moisture Content

Wet basis moisture content (designated MW in the text) is described by the percentage equivalent of
the ratio of the weight of water (WW) to the total weight of the material (Wt).

Note that wet basis moisture content can range from 0 to 100 percent.

Wet basis moisture is used to describe the water content of agricultural materials and food products.
When the term "moisture content" is used in the food industry it almost always refers to wet basis
moisture content. One important example occurs in the grain industry where moisture content of
whole grains is determined at each point in the marketing channel where the grain changes
ownership.

Dry Basis Moisture Content

Dry basis moisture content (designated Md in the text) is described by the percentage equivalent of
the ratio of the weight of water (WW) to the weight of the dry matter (Wd).

Note that dry weight moisture content can range from 0 to very large percentages.
Dry basis moisture is most commonly used for describing moisture changes during drying. When a
sample loses or gains moisture, the change in the dry basis moisture is linearly related to the weight
loss or gain.

Relationship Between Wet Basis and Dry Basis Moisture Content

If MW, the wet basis moisture content in percent, is known, the dry basis moisture content can be
calculated using:

If Md, the dry basis moisture content in percent, is known, the wet basis moisture content can be
calculated using: