CHAPTER 4

DC Generator

Chapter Objectives

 After the completion of this unit, students/readers will be able to understand:

 What is a DC generator and how does it convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy?
 What are the main constructional features of a DC machine, material used for
different parts and their function?
 How armature winding is designed and placed in the armature slots? Give details of
lap and wave winding design. What are the factors on which emf induced in the
armature depends?
 What are the factors on which torque developed in the armature depends?
 What is armature reaction and how does it affect the performance of machine?
 What is commutation? What is meaning of bad and good commutation?
 What are causes of sparking at the brushes and how can it be reduced or removed?
 What are inter-poles and compensating winding and how are these helpful in
improving commutation?
 What are different types of DC generators on the basis of field excitation?
 How is voltage built-up in DC shunt generator and what is critical resistance?
 What are the performance characteristics of DC generators and their field of
applications?
 What are the losses in a DC generator?
 What is efficiency of a DC generator and under what conditions does it become
maximum?

Introduction

A DC machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. When it converts

mechanical power ( T ) into DC electrical power (EI), it is known as a DC generator. On the
other hand, when it converts DC electrical power into mechanical power it is known as a DC
motor.
Although battery is an important source of DC electric power, but it can supply limited
power. There are some applications where large quantity of DC power is required (such as
in chemical and metal extraction plants, for electroplating and electrolysis processes etc.),
at such places DC generators are used to deliver power.

In short, we can say that DC machines have their own role in the field of engineering. In this
chapter, we shall focus our attention on the common topics of DC generators.

4.1 DC Generator

An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (or electrical machine) that converts

mechanical energy or power ( T ) into DC electrical energy or power (EI) is called DC
generator.

Working Principle

The basic principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction i.e., “When a conductor

cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is induced in it.”
Consider Fig. 4.2(a), here, when a conductor is moved vertically upward or downward, the
deflection in the galvanometer clearly shows that an emf is induced in the conductor since
flux is cut by the conductor. But, when it is moved horizontally (left or right), there is no
deflection in the galvanometer which shows that no emf is induced in the conductor since
flux cut is zero and conductor moves just parallel to the magnetic lines of force.

In fact, in a generator, a coil is rotated at a constant speed of  radians per second in a

strong magnetic field of constant magnitude as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). An emf is induced in
the coil by the phenomenon of dynamically induced emf ( e  Blv sin  , e  sin  ). The
magnitude and direction of induced emf changes periodically depending upon sine of angle
 . The wave shape of the induced emf is shown in Fig. 4.2(c), which is AC for internal as
well as external load.

This AC is converted into DC with the help of commutator, as explained in the Articles to
follow. Thus, the working principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction.

4.2 Main Constructional Features

The complete assembly of various parts in a scattered form of a DC machine is shown in Fig.
4.3. The essential parts of a DC machine are described below:
1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke

The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed is called yoke. It
also helps to fix the machine on the foundation. It serves two purposes:

(i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.

(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made of
cast steel or fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic properties
as compared to cast iron.

2. Pole Core and Pole Shoes

The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They serve
the following purposes:

(i) They support the field or exciting coils.

(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.

(iii) Since pole shoes have larger X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.

Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations
which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure as shown in Fig. 4.4(a).
3. Field or Exciting Coils

Enamelled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are
wound on the former [see Fig. 4(b)] and then placed around the pole core as shown in Fig.
4(a). When direct current is passed through the field winding, it magnetises the poles which
produce the required flux. The field coils of all the poles are connected in series in such a
way that when current flows through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity as
shown in Fig. 4.5.

4. Armature Core

It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery slots are cut,
as shown in Fig. 4.6, which accommodate the armature winding. The armature core shown
in Fig. 4.6, serves the following purposes:

(i) It houses the conductors in the slots.

(ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.

Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in the core,
hence hysteresis losses are produced. To minimise these losses silicon steel material is used
for its construction. When it rotates, it cuts the magnetic field and an emf is induced in it.
This emf circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current loss in it. To reduce these
losses, armature core is laminated, in other words we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick
stampings are used for its construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the
other by varnish layer (see Fig. 4.6).
5. Armature Winding

The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is known
as armature winding. The armature winding acts as the heart of a DC machine. It is a place
where one form of power is converted to the other form i.e., in case of generator,
mechanical power is converted into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power
is converted into mechanical power. On the basis of connections, there are two types of
armature windings named (i) Lap winding and (ii) Wave winding (detailed discussions in the
coming articles).

(i) Lap winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the number of parallel paths
is equal to number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then
there will be P parallel, paths, each path will have Z/P conductors in series. In this case,
the number of brushes is equal to the number parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes
are positive and the remaining (half) are negative.

(ii) Wave winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel
paths are only two irrespective of the number of poles. Thus, if machine has Z armature
conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In
this case, the number of brushes is equal to two i.e., number of parallel paths.
6. Commutator

It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes:

(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through
brushes.

(ii) It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in generator action, whereas, it converts
the alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in the armature
in motor action.

The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard drawn copper
segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica. The
segments are held together by means of two V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut
into the segments. Each armature coil is connected to the commutator segment through
riser. The sectional view of the commutator assembly is shown in Fig. 4.7.

7. Brushes

The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link between the
armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade carbon
because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in powdered form provides
lubricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular position
around the commutator by brush holders and rocker.
8. Brush Rocker

It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the stationary frame of the
machine with nut and bolts. By adjusting its position, the position of the brushes over the
commutator can be adjusted to minimise the sparking at the brushes.

9. End Housings

End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings. The front
housing supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing usually
supports the bearing only.

10. Bearings

The bearings may be ball or roller bearings these are fitted in the end housings. Their
function is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine.
Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.

11. Shaft

The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to
transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core,
commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

4.3 Simple Loop Generator and Function of Commutator

For simplicity, consider only one coil AB placed in the strong magnetic field. The two ends
of the coil are joined to slip rings A’ and B’ respectively. Two brushes rest on these slip rings
as shown in Fig. 4.8.
When this coil is rotated in counter clockwise direction at an angular velocity of  radius
per second, the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and an emf is induced in it. The position of
the coil at various instants is shown in Fig. 4.8(a) and the corresponding value of the induced
emf and its direction is shown in Fig. 4.8(b). The induced emf is alternating and the current
flowing through the external resistance is also alternating i.e., at second instant current
flows in external resistance from M to L, whereas, at fourth instant it flows from L to M as
shown in Fig. 4.8(b).

Commutator Action

Now, consider that the two ends of the coil are connected to only one slip ring split into two
parts (segment) i.e., A’’ and B’’. Each part is insulated from the other by a mica layer. Two
brushes rest on these parts of the ring as shown in Fig. 4.9(a).

In this case when the coil is rotated is counter clockwise direction at an angular velocity of
 radians per second, the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and an emf is induced in it. The
magnitude of emf induced in the coil at various instants will remain the same as shown in
Fig. 4.8(b).
However, the flow of current in the external resistor or circuit will become unidirectional
i.e., at second instant the flow of current in the external resistor is from M to L as well as
the flow of current in the external resistor is from M to L in the fourth instant, as shown in
Fig. 4.9(a). Its wave shape is shown in Fig. 4.9(b).

Hence, an alternating current is converted into unidirectional current in the external circuit
with the help of a split ring (i.e., commutator).

In an actual machine, there are number of coils connected to the number of segments of
the ring called commutator. The emf or current delivered by these coils to the external load
is shown in Fig. 4.10(a). The actual flow of current flowing in the external load is shown by
the firm line which fluctuates slightly. The number of coils placed on the armature is even
much more than this and a pure direct current is obtained at the output as shown in Fig.
4.10(b).

Thus, in actual machine working as a generator, the function of commutator is to convert

the alternating current produced in the armature into direct current in the external circuit.
4.4 Connections of Armature Coils with Commutator Segments and Location of Brushes

Consider an armature which has four coils 1, 2, 3 and 4 equally spaced in the armature slots
as shown in Fig. 4.11. The number of commutator segments is equal to number of coils.
When the armature is rotated clockwise, the direction of induced emf and hence the
current in coil sides 3' , 1, 4 ' , 2 is downward and in coil sides 1' , 3, 2 ' , 4 is upward. The
coils should be connected in such a way that the emf induced in the two sides of the same
coil be added up as shown in Fig. 4.12, The coil sides 1– 4 ' , 1' –2, 2 ' –3 and 3' –4 are
connected to the commutator segments namely 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in Fig. 4.13.
The next point of discussion is to determine how many brush sets are required and where
these are to be placed with respect to the poles. The brushes are to collect or deliver the
current and arc placed at such a position that sparking is minimum at the brushes. The rules
to be followed for determining the position of brushes are given below:

(i) Place the brush at each meeting point or each separating point of two emf’s. The
brushes at the meeting point are of positive polarity and those at the separating point are
of negative polarity. At segment 1, current is separated towards conductor 1 and 4 ' ,
hence it is a separating point. Whereas, current is coming towards segment 3 from
conductor 2 ' and 3, hence it is a meeting point. So, the commutator segment 1 is the
position of negative brush and commutator segment 3 of the positive brush.

(ii) Brushes are generally equally spaced and placed directly opposite to the pole centres.
This brings out a very important point, namely, that in certain positions of the commutator
the brushes will be actually short circuiting the coils connected to the segments with
which they are in contact (Fig. 4.14). In this case only two coils are short circuited, which
is taking place continuously and as such the width of brushes must be greater than the
thickness of the mica insulation between segments. However, for representation, the
general convention is to place the brushes at geometrical neutral plane (G.N.P.). All
conductors above the brush axis carry current in one direction and all conductors below
the brush axis carry current in the opposite direction. This convention represents that the
brushes are placed at the coil or coils in which the voltage induced is zero.
The actual position of the brushes is shown in Figs. 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16. These figures also
show the position of coil sides and the direction of currents after the coils 2 and 4 undergo
commutation. The negative brush short circuits the segments 1 and 4 whereas positive
brush short circuit the segments 2 and 3. The coils 4 and 2 are short circuited by the brushes
and hence no emf should induce in these coils. The armature winding forms a closed circuit
and consists of two parallel paths. When a coil under goes commutation no emf is induced
in it since it passes through magnetic neutral axis (MNA), and the coil is short-circuited by
the brushes, hence no sparking will take place.

4.5 Armature Winding

At the outer periphery of an armature core, slots are cut. In these slots number of
conductors are placed which are connected with each other in proper arrangement forming
series–parallel paths depending upon the requirement. This arrangement of connections is
known as armature winding. To understand the armature winding schemes, it is desirable
to have an idea about the following terms.

1. Conductor: The length of wire embedded in armature core and lying within the
magnetic field is called the conductor (see Fig. 4.17(a), where AB is a conductor). It may
be having one or more parallel strands. Total number of conductors in the armature
winding are represented by the symbol Z.

2. Turn: Two conductors lying in a magnetic field connected in series at the back, as shown
in Fig. 4.17(a), so that emf induced in them is additive is known as a turn.

3. Coil. A coil may be a single turn coil having only two conductors, as shown in Fig. 4.17(a),
or it may be a multi-turn coil having more than two conductors as shown in Fig. 4.17(b).
In Fig. 4.17(b), a three-turn coil is shown. The bunch of three conductors may be wrapped
by the cotton tape, as shown in Fig. 4.17(c), before placing in the slot of armature. A multi-
turn coil can be represented by single line diagram as shown in Fig. 4.17(d). Multi-turn
coils are used to develop higher voltages. When the armature conductors are more, it is
not feasible to use single turn coils because it will require large number of commutator
segments and if used it will not give spark-less commutation. Moreover, it will not be
economical due to use of more copper in the end connections. The total number of coils
in the armature winding are represented by symbol ‘C’.

4. Coil side. Each coil (single turn or multi-turn) has two sides called coil sides. Both the
coil sides are embedded in two different slots as per the winding design (nearly a pole
pitch apart).
 5. Coil group. A group of coils may have one or more coils.

6. Winding. When number of coil groups are arranged on the armature in a particular
fashion as per the design, it is called an armature winding.

7. Inductance effect. All the coils have some inductance effect as current is changing in
them. Due to inductance effect the flow of current is opposed causing reduction in
resultant output voltage. Over-hanging end connections have some adverse effect due to
inductance.

Terms Related to Winding Design

8. Front-end and Back-end connectors. A wire that is used to connect end of a coil at the
front to the commutator segment is called a front-end connector. Whereas, a wire that is
used to connect one coil side to the other coil side at the back is called back-end
connector.

9. Pole pitch. In general, it is defined as number of armature slots per pole. It may also be
defined as the number of armature conductors per pole. If there are 36 conductors for 4
poles then pole pitch will be equal to 36/4 i.e., 9 conductors per pole.

10. Back pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors between first and
last conductor of the same coil i.e., the distance between two coil sides of the same coil
is called back pitch. It is also called the coil span or coil spread and is denoted by Yb, as
shown in Figs. 4.18(a), (b) and (c)
11. Front pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors or number of
slots between second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which
are connected to the same commutator segment on the front is called front pitch. It is
denoted by YF, as shown in Figs. 4.18 (a), (b) and (c).

12. Resultant pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors or number
of slots between the start of one coil and the start of the next coil to which it is connected
is called resultant pitch. It is denoted by YR as shown in Figs. 4.18(a), (b) and (c).

13. Commutator pitch. The distance measured in terms of commutator segments

between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected is called commutator
pitch. It is denoted by YC as shown in Figs. 4.18(a), (b) and (c).

14. Coil span or coil pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors or
number of slots between two sides of the same coil is called coil span or coil pitch.

The coil span may be equal to, less than or more than pole pitch. Accordingly, the coils
are knows as full pitched, short pitched or over pitched coils respectively.

For instance, consider Fig. 4.19. where pole pitch is say 4. One side of coil-A is placed is
slot No. 1 and the other side is placed in slot No. 5, then the coil span is 5-1 = 4 which is
equal to pole pitch hence coil-A is called a full-pitched coil. Whereas, in case of coil-B, the
coil span is 6–3 = 3 which is less than pole pitch, this coil is called a short pitched coil.
 When the coils are full pitched, the induced emf in a coil is the arithmetic sum of the emfs
induced in two sides of the same coil since the coil sides are displaced by 180° electric al.
In this case, the two sides of the same coil are placed at similar position of two adjacent
poles (North and South).

In case of short pitched and over pitched coils, the resultant induced emf is reduced
because the two sides would fall under the influence of the same pole at some instant. At
this instance the induced emf in the two sides will oppose each other causing reduction
in resultant emf (phasor difference).

The advantage of short pitched winding is that in this case the copper used for end
connections is reduced substantially which reduces the cost of machine. If also improves
the commutation (reduction of sparking at brushes) because inductance of overhang
connections is reduced. Moreover, it reduces the copper losses and improves the
efficiency to some extent. Hence, many a times short pitched winding is used.

15. Degree of Re-entrant of an armature winding. There can be single re-entrant or multi
reentrant armature winding. While tracing through a winding once, if all armature
conductors are included on returning to the starting point, the winding is called single re-
entrant winding. It will be double re-entrant if only half of the conductors are included in
tracing through the winding once.

4.6 Types of Armature Winding

The continuous or closed armature windings are of two types:

1. Gramme-ring winding 2. Drum Winding

The gramme-ring type of armature winding is an early form of armature winding. This
winding is replaced by more efficient drum type winding. The gramme-ring type of armature
winding was having following disadvantages.

Disadvantages

(i) Only half the coil was available to link with the pole flux. The other half of the portion
of winding was lying inside the core which was used only as connectors and so there was
wastage of copper.
 (ii) As each turn was to pass through the centre of the core, therefore, it was difficult to
wind and require more labour, hence was costlier.

(iii) The maintenance and repairs were more costly.

(iv) Insulation of winding was also difficult.

(v) For the same pole flux and armature velocity the emf induced in ring winding was half
of that induced in the drum winding having same number of coils.

(vi) Construction was having a large air gap, so stronger field excitation was required to
produce the required flux.

4.7 Drum Winding

In this type of winding, the conductors are housed in slots cut over the armature surface
and connected to one another at the front and back through connectors. It has the following
two main advantages.

1. Whole of the copper used is active except end connectors, i.e., it cuts flux and,
therefore, is active in generating emf.

2. The coils can be pre-formed and insulated before placing on the armature, which
reduces the construction cost.

The drum winding may be either single layer or double layer winding. In single layer winding,
only one conductor or one coil side is placed in each armature slot. It is rarely used because
of its more cost. In two-layer winding, as shown in Fig. 4.20, there are two conductors or
coil sides per slot arranged in two layers. Mostly it is employed because of economy reasons.
These coils are usually are wound on machine driven formers which give them proper
shape. The turns may be bound together with cotton tape. The ends are left bare to solder
them to the commutator segments. The coils are then dipped into some insulating
compound such as asphalt and are then dried. If the machine is to be operated at high
temperatures, other materials, such as mica and paper tape, fibre glass tape, and silicon
impregnated insulation may be used.

Before placing the coils in the slots, liners of leatheroid are placed to ensure mechanical
protection is provided to the coils. After dropping the coils into the slots, wedges of wood
or hard fibre are driven to hold them in place, as shown in Figs. 4.20(a) and (b). To obtain
maximum voltage a full pitched winding is used. However, the span may be reduced to as
much as eight-tenth of the pole pitch without any serious reduction in the induced emf.
When this is done, the winding is called short pitch (or fractional pitch) winding.

Usually, one side of every coil lies in the top of one slot and the other side lies in the bottom
of some other slot at a distance of approximately one pole pitch along the armature. Thus,
at least two coil sides occupy each slot. Such windings, in which two coil sides occupy each
slot are most commonly used for all medium sized machines. In case of large machines,
more coil-sides can be placed in a single slot as shown in Figs. 4.20(b) and 4.20(d). Placing
of several elements in a single slot gives fewer slots than segments which have got following
advantages.

(i) By providing more conductors in one slot, the number of slots decreases. As the
number of slots is reduced the armature core teeth become mechanically stronger to bear
the stresses.

(ii) In this arrangement, the number of commutator segments is increased, the voltage
between segments adjacent to each other decreases and the number of turns of wire in
the coil or coils connected to adjacent segments also decreases. The result is that there is
less sparking at the commutator because of the improved commutation.

(iii) The overall cost of construction is reduced.

In general there are two types of drum type armature windings: (i) lap winding (ii) wave
windings.
4.8 Lap Winding

Single turn lap winding is shown in Figs. 4.21(a) and (b). In lap winding a coil side under one
pole is connected directly to the coil side of another coil which occupies nearly the
corresponding position under the next pole and the finish end of other coil is connected to
a commutator segment and to the start end of the adjacent coil situated under the same
pole and all coils are connected similarly forming a closed loop. Since the sides of successive
coils overlap each other, it is called a lap winding. Lap winding may be further classified as
a simplex (single) or multiplex (double or triple) windings.

Simplex lap winding: In this winding, there are as many parallel paths as there are field poles
on the machine.

Double or duplex lap winding: In this case, two similar simplex windings are placed in
alternate slots on the armature and connected to alternate commutator segments. Thus,
each winding carries half of the armature current.
Triple or triplex lap winding: In this case, three similar simplex windings are placed to occupy
every third slot and connected to every third commutator segment. Thus, each winding
carries one third of the armature current. Similarly, there can be multiplex lap winding
having even more than three simplex winding as per the requirement.

The above explanation clearly shows that the sole purpose of employing multiplex lap
winding is to increase the number of parallel** paths enabling the armature to carry a large
total current, at the same time reducing the conductor current to improve commutation
conditions.

Following points regarding lap winding should be carefully noted:

1. The back and front pitches must be odd. But they cannot be equal. They differ by 2 or
some multiple thereof.

Z
2. The coil or back pitch YB must be nearly equal to a pole pitch   .
P

YB  YF Z
3. The average pitch YA  . It is equal to pole pitch = .
2 P

4. Commutator pitch YC = ± 1 for simplex winding (in general, YC = ± m where m is the

multiplicity of winding)

5. Resultant pitch YR is always even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers,
i.e., YR = YB – YF. It is equal to 2m where m is multiplicity of winding.
 6. For a two-layer winding, the number of slots and number of commutator segments are
equal to the number of coils (i.e., half the number of coil sides).

7. The number of parallel paths in the armature = mP where m is the multiplicity of

winding and P the number of poles.

Taking the first condition, we have YB = YF ± 2.

(a) If YB > YF i.e., YB = YF + 2, then we get a progressive or right-handed winding i.e., a

winding which progresses in the clockwise direction when we look towards the
commutator end. Obviously, YC = +1, in this case.

(b) In case YB < YF i.e., YB = YF – 2, we get a retrogressive or left-handed winding i.e., a

winding which advances in the anti-clockwise direction just opposite to the previous case.
In this case, YC = –1.

Z  Z 
YF   1 YF 
 1
(c) Hence, P …(4.1) for progressive winding and P …(4.2) for
 
Z  Z 
YB   1 YB   1
P  P 
retrogressive winding.

Obviously, Z/P must be even to make the winding possible.

4.9 Numbering of Coils and Commutator Segments in Developed Winding Diagram

The developed winding diagram can be obtained by removing the armature periphery,
cutting it along the slot and laying it out flat so that the slots and conductors can be viewed
to trace out the armature winding. While drawing developed winding diagrams, we will
designate only the coil sides with number (not individual turns). The upper side of the coil
will be represented by a firm continuous line, whereas the lower side will be represented
by a dotted line. The consecutive number i.e., 1, 2, 3,….. etc. will be assigned to the coil sides
such that odd numbers are assigned to the top conductors and even numbers to the lower
sides for a two-layer winding. The commutator segments will also be numbered
consecutively, the number of the segments will be equal to the number of coils and the
upper side will be connected to it.
The readers will be able to understand how to develop armature winding diagram by going
through the following examples:

4.10 Characteristics of a Simplex Lap Winding

From the above examples it is concluded that

1. A simplex lap winding is a singly re-entrant closed winding because winding may start
from any coil side (here it starts from coil side No. 1) returns back to the same coil side
after connecting all the coil sides of the armature once and only once.

2. Both back pitch (YB) and front pitch (YF) of all the coils remain the same and odd number.

3. Total number of brushes is equal to the number of poles. These brushes are connected
to the coil sides which lie in between the poles and have no emf induced in them at that
particular instant.

4. There are as many parallel paths in the armature as the number of poles (see Fig. 4.27).
That is why such a winding is also known as ‘Multiple Circuit’ or ‘parallel’ winding. In
general, number of parallel paths in armature, A = mP where m is the multiplicity of the
lap winding. For simplex lap winding m = 1 ( A = P), for duplex lap winding m = 2 and so
on.

5. The emf developed across the positive (+ve) and negative (–ve) brushes is equal to the
emf generated in any one of the parallel paths.

Generated emf, E g = emf generated per parallel path

Z
= Average emf/coil side ×
P

Z
where is the number of coil sides connected in series per parallel path.
P

6. If l is the length of each armature conductor (or coil side), including overhang, a is the
area of cross-section and  is the resistivity of conductor material, then

l
Resistance of each conductor (or coil side) = 
a
 Z
Since conductors are connected in series in each parallel path.
P

l Z
Resistance of each parallel path =  
a P

Say the number of parallel paths = A

l Z
 
Then armature resistance, Ra  a P  l. Z .
A a P A

In simplex lap winding, A = P

 lZ  lZ
 Armature resistance, Ra  2
 … (4.3)
aP aA2

7. If I a is the total armature current, then current carried by each parallel path or

conductor is I a P (in general I a A ).

4.11 Characteristics of a Multiplex Lap Winding

From the winding diagram for duplex lap winding, the following conclusions have been
drawn:

1. There are two independent winding, each closed on itself. Accordingly, the winding is
said to be a doubly re-entrant duplex winding.

It is important to note that that in duplex winding, if the coils are not multiple of 2, there
will not be two independent windings and in such cases, the winding will close only once,
then it is known as singly reentrant duplex winding. Similarly, for triplex winding, the
number of coils must be a multiple of 3 and so on.

2. Total number of brushes is equal to the number of poles but each brush must have a
span of two commutator segments to collect current provided by two windings, as shown
in Fig. 4.28. Similarly, for triplex winding each brush must have a span of three segments
and so on.

3. The number of parallel paths for each winding is equal to the number of poles (i.e., 6 in
this case). Therefore, total number of parallel paths for the armature is mP where m is the
 multiplicity, in this case m = 2, therefore the number of parallel paths = 2 × 6 = 12, as
shown in Fig. 4.31.

4. The number of conductors in each parallel path are Z/mP (here m = 2).

In this case, No. of conductors connected in series in each parallel path, say,

Z 48
ZS   4
mP 2  6

5. It is obvious that multiplex lap winding is used in the machines where we require high
current to be delivered at small voltages.

4.12 Equalising Connections and their Necessity

In simplex lap winding, the number of parallel paths are equal to the number of poles and
all the conductors of any one parallel path lie under one pair of poles. If the flux produced
by all the poles is exactly the same, the emf induced in each parallel path and hence the
current carried by each one of them will be equal. But in spite of best efforts, this condition
cannot be obtained due to different properties of steel used for construction of poles and
variation of air-gap between the poles and armature. Hence, there is always a slight
difference in the induced emf in various parallel paths which results in large circulating
currents in the armature winding. This circulating current flows from one parallel path to
the other from one commutator segment to the other through brushes. This circulating
current has the following ill-effects:*

1. Armature circulating current heats-up the armature winding.

2. It causes heavy sparking at the brushes which not only heats-up the machine but also
causes undue burning and wear of commutator and brushes. If it is carried too far, it may
result in flash over from positive to negative brushes.

To overcome this detrimental effect, usually, equalising connections are provided in all lap-
wound armatures. These connections are made with the help of very low resistance (almost
zero) wires called equalisers.

An equaliser is a copper wire having very low resistance and is used to connect the points
of different parallel paths of armature winding which should have same potential under
ideal conditions. These equaliser rings carry the circulating current and relieve the brushes
to carry these circulating current. Under this condition, the brushes are to carry only the
load current.
For making equaliser connections, the number of coils should be multiples of the number
of poles and at the same time, the number of coils per pole should be divisible by a small
number 2, 3 or 4. For instance, consider a four-pole, 16-slot double layer, lap wound
armature winding having 32 coil sides. Its developed winding diagram is shown in Fig. 4.32.
Here, the number of coil sides per pole are 8. The equaliser connections are shown in Fig.
4.32. The following points are worth noting:

1. That every 3rd coil is connected to an equaliser. Each coil-side (or coil) connected to
the equaliser occupies the same position relative to the poles such that same emf is
induced in all the coils at every instant.

2. The number of connections to each equalising ring is equal to the number of pair of
poles.

3. The number of equalising rings is equal to the number of coils under one pair of poles
(i.e., 8/2 = 4).

4. Here, alternate coils have been connected to the equalising ring and as such it is said
that the winding is equalised by 50%. If all the coils would have been connected to the
equalisers it would have been said that the winding is 100% equalised.

4.13 Simplex Wave Winding

A simplex* wave winding is shown in Fig. 4.33. In lap winding a coil side under one pole is
connected directly to a coil side at the back which occupies almost corresponding
positioned coil side under the next pole and the finish end of that coil is connected to a
commutator segment and to the start end of the adjacent coil situated under the same
original pole. But in the wave winding the coil side is not connected back rather progresses
forward to another coil side placed under the next pole, as shown in Fig. 4.33. In this way,
the winding progresses, passing successively every North and South pole till it returns to the
coil side from where it was started. It clearly shows that the connections of wave winding
always progresses in the same direction around the armature instead of moving forward
and backward alternately like that of lap winding. As the shape of winding is wavy, it is
named as wave winding.
The wave winding may be classified as progressive wave winding or retrogressive wave
winding.

Progressive wave winding. If after completing one round of the armature, the winding falls
in a slot to the right of its starting point the winding is known as progressive wave winding.

Retrogressive wave winding. If after completing one round of the armature. The winding
falls in a slot to the left of its starting point, the winding is known as retrogressive wave
winding.

The wave winding may also be a multiplex winding (double, triple or more). A simplex wave
winding has only two parallel paths irrespective of the number of pair of poles of the
machine. However, a multiplex wave winding has 2m parallel paths, where m is the
multiplicity.

Regarding wave winding, the following points are worth noting:

(a) Simplex wave winding

1. Both back and front pitches must be odd.

2. Both back and front pitches must be nearly equal to pole pitch. They may be equal to
each other or may differ by 2 i.e.,

YF  YB or YF  YB  2

3. Commutator pitch, YC = YA (average pitch)

4. An average pitch YA must be an integer given by the relation

YB  YF Z  2 Z 2  1 No. of commutator segments - 1

YA    
2 P P2 No. of pair of poles

The wave winding will be closed itself only if the value of average pitch (YA) comes out to
be a whole number (i.e., integer) and agrees to the above formulae.

Z 2
It is important to note here that in formulae YA  , the value ±2 has been taken due
P
to the reason that after one round of armature the winding falls either short or go ahead
by two conductors from the starting conductor. If it is not done and the average pitch is
taken as Z/P then after one round of armature the winding would have been closed
without including all coil-sides.

The positive sign provides progressive winding whereas negative sign provides
retrogressive winding.

It is mentioned that average pitch (YA) must be a whole number, it shows that this winding
is not possible with any number of coil-sides. For example, with 32 conductors in a four-
32  2 1 1
pole machine, YA   8 or 7 is a fractional number, the wave winding is not
4 2 2
possible.

5. Resultant pitch, YR = YB + YF

6. (a) For even number of pair of pole machines i.e., the machines which are having 2, 4,
6,…… pair of poles;

(i) the number of coils must be odd.

(ii) the number of commutator segments must be odd.

YB  YF
(iii) the average pitch, YA  may be odd or even.
2

(b) For odd number of pair of pole machines i.e., the machines which are having 3, 5, 7…..
pair of poles;

(i) the number of coils may be odd or even

 (ii) the number of commutator segments may be odd or even.

(iii) the average pitch must be odd for even number of coils but it must be even for
odd number of coils.

(c) Multiplex wave winding

(i) YB  YF  2m

Positive sign for progressive winding and negative for retrogressive winding.

Z  2m
(ii) YA  which must be an integer.
P

(iii) In case of duplex winding

(a) If No. of pair of poles is add and average pitch is odd, it must have odd number
of commutator segments and coils. If average pitch is even machine must have an
even number of commutator segments and coils.

(b) If No. of pair of poles is even, the number of commutator segments and coils
must be even irrespective whether the average pitch is odd or even. If average
pitch is odd, the winding will be singly re-entrant and if even doubly re-entrant.

4.14 Dummy Coils

While designing wave winding, a particular number of coil-sides are required. To

accommodate these coil-sides, the stemming with particular number of slots are needed
which may not be available with standard armature punching. In such cases, some coil-sides
(or conductors) are placed in the vacant slots. These coil sides are not connected to other
coil-sides of the winding and do not participate in the conversion of power. Such coil-sides
or coils are called dummy coil. These are employed only to make the mechanical balancing
of the armature.

Thus, the coils placed on the armature which do not participate in the conversion of power
but are employed only to make mechanical balancing of the armature are known as dummy
coils.
4.15 Applications of Lap and Wave Windings

The lap winding contains more number of parallel paths and provides large current. Hence,
this winding is applied to the generators which are to deliver more current. Wave winding
is more suitable for small generators specially these are meant for 500–600 V circuits.

The main advantage of wave winding is that it gives more emf than lap winding for given
number of poles and armature conductors, whereas, the lap winding would require large
number of conductors for the same emf. This will result in higher cost of winding and less
utilisation of space in the armature slots.

Moreover, in wave winding, equalising connections are not necessary, whereas in lap
winding these are required definitely. It is because, in wave winding the conductors of the
two paths are distributed in such a way that they lie under all the poles, therefore, any
inequality of pole fluxes affects two paths equally, hence their induced emfs are equal. But,
in lap winding, each parallel path contains conductors which lie under one pair of poles,
hence unequal voltages are produced which set-up a circulating current causing sparking at
the brushes.

Thus, in general practice, wave winding is preferred, the lap winding is only used for low-
voltage, high-current machines.

4.16 emf Equation

Let, P = Number of poles of the machine.

 = Flux per pole in Wb

Z = Total number of armature conductors.

N = Speed of armature in rpm

A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature; Flux cut by one conductor = P Wb

Time taken to complete one revolution, t = 60/N second

 Average induced emf in one conductor,

 P P P N
e   volt
t 60 N 60

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

 Average induced emf across each parallel path or across the armature terminals,

P N Z PZ  N
E   volt …(4.4)
60 A 60 A

PZ n
or E where n in speed in r.p.s.
A

N
i.e., n
60

For a given machine, the number of poles and number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant.

PZ
 E  K n where K  is a constant or E   n
A

PZ n
or E where n is speed in r. p.s …(4.5)
A

2 N
or E    where   is the angular velocity in radian/second
60

Thus, we conclude that the induced emf is directly proportional to flux per pole and speed.
Moreover, the polarity of the induced emf depends upon the direction of magnetic field
and the direction of rotation. If either of the two is reversed, the polarity of induced emf
i.e., brushes is reversed, but when both are reversed the polarity does not change.

This induced emf is fundamental phenomenon to all DC machines whether they are working
as generator or motor. However, when the machine is working as a generator, this induced
PZ  N
emf is called generated emf and is represented as Eg , i.e., E g  volt.
60 A

Whereas, in case the machine is working as a motor, this induced emf is called back emf as
PZ N
it acts opposite to the supply voltage V. Then Eb  volt.
60 A

4.17 Torque Equation

We know that when a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field a force is
exerted on it which exerts turning moment or torque (F × r) (see Fig. 4.43). This torque is
produced due to electro-magnetic effect, hence is called electromagnetic torque.

Let P = No. of poles.

 = Flux per pole in Wb.

r = Average radius of armature in metre.

l = Effective length of each conductor in metre.

Z = Total armature conductors.

I a = Total armature current.

A = No. of parallel paths.

Average force on each conductor, F = Bi l newton

Torque due to one conductor = F × r newton metre

Total torque developed in the armature,

T = ZFr newton metre

or T = ZB i l r

Now, current in each conductor, i = I a / A

* Average flux density, B   a where ‘a’ is the X- sectional area of flux path at radius r.
2 rl 2 P
Obviously, a m B  tesla
P 2 rl

Substituting these values in equation (i), we get

 P Ia PZ I a
T Z   l  r or T  Nm …(4.6)
2 rl A 2 A

Alternately; The power developed in the armature is given as

2 N
EI a  T or EI a  T
60

 ZNP 2 N PZ  N
or  Ia  T or T  Nm (As above)
60 A 60 2 A

For a particular machine, the number of poles (P), number of conductors per parallel path
(Z/A) are constant.

 Ia PZ
T Z where K  is a constant
2 rl A

The constant K for a given machine is the same for the emf equation as well as the torque
equation.

PZ
Also, T  K 2 I a where K 2  is another constant. Thus, T   I a …(4.7)
2 A
Thus, we conclude that torque produced in the armature is directly proportional to flux per
pole and armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed
in the armature depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the direction of
flow of current in armature conductors. The direction of torque produced and hence the
direction of rotation is reversed if either of the two is reversed. But when both are reversed
the direction of torque does not change.

4.18 Armature Reaction

When a DC generator is loaded, a current flows through the armature conductor in the
same direction as that of the induced (or generated) emf The armature conductors carrying
current, produce their own magnetic field called armature field.

The effect of armature field produced by the armature current carrying conductors on the
main magnetic field is known as armature reaction.

Let us see the effect of armature field on the main magnetic field when the generator is
loaded. Consider a bipolar generator. At no-load, no current flows through the armature
conductors and the flux distribution in the armature is shown in Fig. 4.44. The vector OFm
represents the mmf produced by the main field. It is observed that the Magnetic Neutral
Axis (MNA), which are perpendicular to the main field passing through the armature, and
the Geometrical Neutral Axis (GNA) coincide with each other. The brushes (B1 and B2 ) are
always placed at MNA. Here, they are shown as touching the armature conductors directly,
but in reality they touch the commutator segments connected to these conductors.

Geometrical Neutral Axis: The line passing through the geometrically central point between
the two adjacent opposite magnetic poles is called geometrical neutral axis (GNA).

Magnetic Neutral Axis: The line passing through the magnetically neutral position between
the two adjacent opposite magnetic poles is called magnetic neutral axis (MNA). When a
conductor (or coil) passes through these axis, no emf is induced in the conductor (or coil).

When load is applied to the generator, current* flows through the armature conductors
which sets up armature field as shown in Fig. 4.45. The vector OFA represents the mmf
produced by the armature field.
This armature flux interacts with the main flux and a resultant flux is set up in the armature
as shown in Fig. 4.46. It can be observed that the resultant flux is no longer uniform. It is
concentrated (becomes stronger) at the trailing pole tips and is rare (becomes weaker) at
the leading pole tips.

The resultant mmf is shown by the vector OF which is the vector sum of OFm and OFA. Thus,
the MNA are shifted to new position displaced from its original position by an angle  .

The new position of magnetic neutral axis i.e., the shifting of axis by an angle  depends
upon the magnitude of load applied on the generator. Larger the load, larger will be the
shift or larger will be the value of angle  . It means the shifting of MNA is not constant, it
varies and depends upon the magnitude of load applied on the machine. Moreover, the
shift is in the direction of rotation. (in generating action).

As per the new position of MNA, the distribution of armature flux is shown in Fig. 4.47. The
vector OFAR represents the new position of mmf producing resultant armature field. This
armature field has two component (i) OFC which is perpendicular to the main mmf OFm and
produces the cross magnetising effect. (ii) OFD which opposes the main mmf OFm and
produces the demagnetising effect.

Thus the armature magnetic field produces.

(i) Cross magnetising effect which creates a magnetic field in between the two adjacent
opposite poles where brushes are placed for commutation.
 (ii) Demagnetising effect which weaken the main magnetic field and changes the flux
distribution such that at trailing pole tips the flux is strengthened and at leading pole tips
the flux is weakened.

III-effects of armature reaction

The above two effects caused by the armature reaction lead to poor commutation
(increases sparking at the brushes or at the commutator surface) and increases iron losses.
Let us see how it happens;

(i) Sparking at brushes: During commutation i.e., when a coil is short circuited by the
brushes through commutator segments should have zero emf induced in it. That is why
the brushes are usually placed along the interpolar axis where the flux cut by the coil is
zero and no emf is induced in it. But due to armature reaction the magnetic neutral axis
(MNA) are shifted and the coil which undergoes commutation induces some emf causing
sparking at the brushes. At heavy loads, the induced emf in the commutating coil may be
so high that it may produce a spark that may spread around the commutator surface
forming a ring of fire. By all means, it has to be avoided otherwise it would damage the
commutator surface and brushes.

(ii) Iron losses: The flux density in the leading and trailing pole tips is changing due to
change in load on the generator or due to armature reaction. This change in flux density
causes more iron losses in the pole shoes.
4.19 Calculations for Armature Ampere-turns

Armature reaction causes demagnetising and cross-magnetising effect. Due to armature

reaction, let the MNA be shifted ahead by an angle  . The new position of MNA is
represented by line AB. Draw another line CD making the same angle  with GNA but in
opposite direction as shown in 4.48.

It may be observed that all the conductors lying between AOC and BOD carry current in such
a direction mmf produced by them in opposite to the main mmf. These conductors cause
demagnetising effect and these turns are known as demagnetising turns.

All other turn lying between angle AOD and COB produce cross magnetising mmf and are
called cross-magnetising turns.

Let Z = total number of armature conductors

A = No. of parallel paths

 * (mech.) = angle by which MNA is shifted

P = No. of poles

I a = armature current

Ia
Current per parallel path or current in each conductor, I c 
A

Ic Z  Z
Total armature ampere-turns =  since turns  
2  2

Ic Z
Total ampere-turns per pole = …(4.8)
2P
Demagnetising ampere-turns = ampere-turns lying with in the angle (AOC + BOD)

I c Z  2  2  I c Z 4 2
= .  .  Ic Z
2  360  2 360 360

I c Z 2 
Demagnetising ampere-turns/pole, ATd  .  Ic Z . …(4.9)
2 360 360

I c Z I c Z  1  
Cross magnetising ampere-turns/pole, ATc    Ic Z    …(4.10)
2 P 360  2 P 360 
4.20 Commutation

In a DC machine, one of the major function is the delivery of current from the armature
(rotating part) to the external circuit (stationary part) or vicenegativersa. This operation is
conducted with the help of brushes and commutator.

During this operation one of the armature coil moves from the influence of one pole to the
other and consequently the current in this coil is reversed. While moving from one pole to
the other the coil is short circuited by the brushes through commutator segments for
1
fraction of a second (say about second). This operation is called commutation.
500

Thus, the process in which a coil is short circuited by the brushes through commutator
segments while it passes from the influence of one pole to the other is called commutation.
In this process the current in the coil is reversed.

The duration for which a coil remains short circuited is called commutation period.

Explanation

For better understanding, consider a machine having ring winding, a part of which is shown
in Fig. 4.49. Assume that the width of brush is equal to the width of commutator segment
and the insulation between the segments is very thin (negligibly small). The current per
conductor is I c and the armature is rotating in such a direction, that coils are moving from

left to right. Let the coil ‘B’ undergoes commutation. Step-wise explanation in given below:

1. As shown in Fig. 4.49 (a), the brush is in contact with commutator segment ‘a’ and
collects current 2 I c coming equally from both the sides.
 2. As the armature is moving, in the first step as shown in Fig. 4.49(b), the brush contact
with segment ‘b’ starts increasing and contact with segment ‘a’ starts decreasing.
Consequently, the current flowing towards the brush via segment ‘b’ starts increasing*
and through segment ‘a’ starts decreasing.

It may be noted that current in coil ‘B’ decreases from I c to x .

3. At the next instant, as shown in Fig. 4.49(c), the brush is at the centre of both the
segments ‘b’ and ‘a’ and covers half of the area of both the segments. At this instant brush
is drawing equal current ( I c ) from both the segments ‘b’ and ‘a’ and its total value is 2 I c

. It may be noted that current in the coil ‘B’ at this instant reduces to zero.
 4. Further at the next instant, as shown in Fig. 4.49(d), larger area of segment ‘b’ has come
in contact with the brush than segment ‘a’. Accordingly, brush draws more current ( I c +

y) from segment ‘b’ and draws smaller current ( I c – y) * from segment ‘a’.

It may be noted that current in the coil ‘B’ has reversed and starts increasing.

5. At the next (final) instant, as shown in Fig. 4.49(e), the brush completely comes in
contact with segment ‘b’ and draws equal current I c from both the sides.

It may be noted that current in the coil ‘B’ has totally reversed and obtains its rated value
Ic .

Thus, the commutation process is completed for coil ‘B’. The same process continues for
the next coils to come (i.e., coil C, D and so on………..).

The reversal of current through a coil undergoing commutation may occur in any of the
following manners (see Fig. 4.50):

Curve-I. Shows linear commutation, where current changes from + I c to – I c uniformly. It is

an ideal commutation and provides uniform current density at the brush contact surface. In
this case, the power loss at the brush contact is minimum.

Curve-2. Shows sinusoidal commutation. It results in satisfactory commutation.

Curve-3. Shows an accelerated or over-commutation where the current attains its final value
with a zero (quick) rate of change at the end of commutation period. Usually, it provides a
satisfactory commutation.

Curve 4. Shows a retarded or under-commutation where the final rate of change of current
is very high. In such conditions sparking at the trailing edge of the brush is inevitable.

Curve 5. Shows sharply accelerated commutation where the current may reach to its proper
final value without a spark but it involves very high localised current densities at the brush
contact leading to sparking and heating which further leads to deterioration of brushes.

Curve 6. Shows sharply retarded commutation where current reaches to its final value which
causes excessive current density under brushes resulting in sparking at the brushes.
Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is concluded that for satisfactory commutation, the current in
the coil which undergoes commutation must be reversed completely during its
commutation period Tc.

4.21 Cause of Delay in the Reversal of Current in the Coil going through Commutation and
its Effect

The main cause of delay in the reversal of current in the coil undergoing commutation is its
inductive property. It is apparent that the coils placed in the armature may have large
number of turns embedded in the magnetic core having high permeability, due to which it
possesses appreciable amount of self-inductance.

The inductive property of the coil undergoing commutation gives rise to a voltage called
reactance voltage. This voltage opposes the reversal of current in it. Although, this voltage
is very small, it produces a large current in the coil whose resistance is very small under
short circuit. Due to this, heavy sparking occur at the brushes.

Thus, it is observed that even though the brushes are set at such a position that coils
undergoing short-circuit are in the magnetic neutral axis where they are not cutting any flux
and hence no emf is induced in them due to rotation of armature but there will be an emf
induced due to self-inductance which causes severe sparking at the brushes.

How to Offset this Reactance Voltage?

To offset this reactance voltage, a voltage is produced in each coil as it passes through
commutating period. This voltage is produced in the coil in such a direction that it offsets
the reactance voltage and helps in reversing the current in the coil. Such a voltage is called
the commutating emf.

The necessary commutating emf can be produced either (i) by shifting the brushes in non-
interpolar machines, beyond the position of MNA which is selected to neutralise the
armature reaction. or (ii) by strengthening the inter-poles more than that is necessary to
neutralise the armature reaction flux.
4.22 Magnitude of Reactance Voltage

An approximate value for inductance (L) of a coil placed in the armature can be determined
by Hobert’s formula. Hobart gave an experimental rule for determining inductance of a coil,

i.e., L  n 2  8le  0.8l f   10 6 henry …(4.11)

where, I e = embedded length of coil in metre

I f = free length (over hang) of coil in metre

n = number of turns of a coil

Induced emf in a coil due to self-inductance, i.e.,

di
Reactance voltage = L …(4.12)
dt

where, di = Change of current during commutation

= I c  ( I c )  2I c

dt = Tc (time for which the coil is short circuited)

Wb  Wm
Tc  second …(4.13)
vc

Here, Wb = brush width in metre

Wm = width (or thickness) of mica insulation

 DN
vc = linear velocity of commutator
60

2Ic
Hence, reactance voltage = n 2  8le  0.8l f  . 10 6 volt …(4.14)
Tc

The above voltage is developed when only one coil is short circuited by the brush width. If
brush width is such that it is short circuiting m coils, then

2Ic
reactance voltage = mn 2  8 I e  0.8I f  . 106 V …(4.15)
Te
4.23 Good Commutation and Poor Commutation

Good Commutation Good commutation means no sparking at the brushes and the
commutator surface remains unaffected during continuous operation of DC machines.
Efforts are made to obtain good commutation.

Poor Commutation (Causes of sparking at brushes)

A machine is said to have poor commutation if there is sparking at the brushes and the
commutator surface gets damaged during its operation. Sparking at the brushes results in
overheating at the commutator brush contact and pitting of commutator. These effects are
cumulative, since any sparking impairs the contact which increases heating and further
aggravates the situation.

Poor commutation may be caused by mechanical or electrical conditions. The mechanical

conditions for poor commutation may be due to uneven surface of the commutator, non-
uniform brush pressure or vibrations of brushes in the brush holder etc. By making proper
mechanical arrangements, the sparking due to mechanical conditions can be avoided (or
eliminated).

The electrical conditions for poor commutation is development of emf in the coils
undergoing commutation which may be due to armature reaction or inductance effect of
the coil.

The production of emf due to armature reaction in the coil undergoing commutation can
be eliminated by providing interpoles or compensating winding on the machine. The
production of emf due to inductance can be counter balanced either (i) by strengthening
the interpoles more than that is necessary to neutralise the armature reaction flux or (ii) by
shifting the brushes beyond the position of MNA which is selected to neutralise the
armature reaction.

4.24 Interpoles and their Necessity

The narrow poles placed in between the main poles of a DC machine are called interpoles
or commutating poles.
Necessity

Interpoles are provided in between the main poles of DC machine and are energised to such
an extent that they must neutralise the armature field produced by the armature winding
when machine is loaded. At the same time they must neutralise the emf induced due to
inductance in the coil undergoing commutation.

For illustration,

Consider a coil ab placed on the armature, rotating in a uniform magnetic field. At this
instant, when the induced emf in the coil ab which undergoes short circuit must be zero as
shown in Figs. 4.51 (a) and (b). Then no current flows and there is no sparking at the brushes
which are slipping from one commutator segment to the next.

When load is applied, the armature conductors also carry current and produce their own
magnetic field  A in the direction shown in Fig. 4.52(a). Thus coil ab undergoing

commutation, this coil is short circuited for a small period. Although it is moving parallel to
main field m but at the same time it is cutting the armature field  A at right angles. Hence,

an emf is induced in the short circuited coil ab as shown in Fig. 4.52(a). This produces lot of
current in the coil and hence causes sparking at the brushes.
The sparking at the brushes can be avoided by neutralising the armature field. For this,
interpoles are provided in the DC machines which are placed in between the main poles as
shown in Fig. 4.52(b). The flux produced by the interpoles, i.e., i must be equal to that of

armature field  A . As  A is proportional to I a , therefore, the winding of the interpoles is

connected in series with the armature as shown in Fig. 4.53(a) and 4.53(b). Usually, the
interpoles are tapered in order to ensure that there may not be saturation at the root of
the pole at heavy overloads. At the same time the airgap under the interpoles is kept larger
(1.5 to 1.7 times) than that under the main poles in order to avoid saturation in the
interpoles.

4.25 Compensating Winding and its Necessity

An armature reaction produces a demagnetising and cross-magnetising effect. The

demagnetising effect is compensated by incorporating a few extra turns to the main-field
winding, whereas, to neutralise the cross-magnetising effect a compensating winding is
used.

In this case, a number of conductors or coils are embedded in the slots of the pole shoes
and are connected in series with the armature winding in such a way that current flowing
through these conductors or coils sets up a magnetic field which neutralises the cross-
magnetising effect of armature field. This winding is known as compensating winding, as
shown in Fig. 4.54.

When current flows through this winding, it sets up magnetic field which is equal and
opposing to the cross-magnetising effect of armature field and neutralises it. Thus, no emf
is induced in the coil passing through MNA and hence sparking at the brushes is eliminated.
Thus, a sparkless or good commutation is obtained.

4.26 Methods of Improving Commutation

Commutation may be improved by employing following methods.

1. By use of high resistance brushes. High resistance carbon brushes help the current to
be reversed in the coil undergoing commutation and reduces sparking at the brushes.

2. By shifting of brushes. In this method, brushes are shifted to the new position of MNA
so that no emf be induced in the coil undergoing commutation. Thus, the sparking at the
brushes is eliminated. But in this case, the position of MNA changes with the change in
load on the machine and simultaneously the position of brushes cannot be changed.
Hence, this method is employed in the machine which we do not have interpoles and the
load on the machine remain almost constant.
 3. By use of interpoles or commutating poles. In this method, narrow poles are placed in
between the main poles of a DC machine which re-energised to such an extent that they
neutralise the field produced by the armature under load. Hence, no emf is induced in the
coil which undergoes commutation.

4. By use of compensating winding. In this method, a number of conductors or coils are

embedded in the slots provided at the pole shoes faces and carry current of such a
magnitude and direction that field produced by them neutralises the armature field and
improve commutation.

4.27 Types of DC Generators

D.C. generators are generally classified according to the methods of their field excitation.
On the basis of this criteria, they can be classified as:

1. Separately excited DC generators

2. Self excited DC generators – these are further classified as:

(i) Shunt wound DC generators

(ii) Series wound DC generators

(iii) Compound wound DC generators.

(a) Long shunt compound wound generators

b) Short shunt compound wound generators.

Except the above, there are also permanent magnet type DC generators. In these
generators, no field winding is placed around the poles. These machines have fairly constant
magnetic field. Although these machines are very compact but are used only in small sizes
like dynamos in automobiles etc. The main disadvantages of these machine is that the flux
produced by the magnets deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the
characteristics of the machine.

4.28 Separately-excited DC Generators

A DC generator in which current is supplied to the field winding from an external DC source
is called a separately excited DC generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon
the field current with in the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles (i.e.,
  I f ), but in the saturated region, the flux remains constant. Its conventional diagram is

shown in Fig. 4.55.

Important relations: Here, I a  I L …(4.16)

where I a is armature current and I L is the line current.

Terminal voltage, V  E g  I a Ra

If contact brush drop per brush (vb ) is known,

V  E g  I a Ra  2vb .…(4.17)

Power developed = Eg I a ;

Power output = VI L  VI a

4.29 Self-excited DC Generators

A DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the generator itself
is called a self-excited DC generator.

In a self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the
armature, in series with the armature or partly in series and partly in parallel with the
armature winding. Accordingly, the self-excited generators may be classified as

(i) Shunt wound generators

(ii) Series wound generators

(iii) Compound wound generators.

(i) Shunt Wound Generators

In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding
forming a parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across the field
winding. A very small current I sh flows through it because this winding has many turns of

fine wire having very high resistance Rsh (of the order of 100 ohm). Its conventional diagram
is shown in Fig. 4.56.

Important relations:

Shunt field current, I sh  V Rsh …(4.18)

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance. The field current I sh is practically constant

at all loads, therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered to be constant flux machine.

Armature current, I a  I L  I sh …(4.19)

Terminal voltage, V  Eg  I a Ra

Including brush contact drop, V  E g  I a Ra  2vb …(4.20)

Power developed = Eg I a ; Power output = VI L

(ii) Series Wound Generators

In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding forming a series circuit. Therefore, full line current I L or armature current I a flows

through it. Since the series field winding carries full load current, it has a few turns of thick
wire having low resistance (usually of the order of less than one ohm). Its conventional
diagram is shown in Fig. 4.57.
Important relations:

Series field current, I se  I L  I a …(4.21)

Series field winding resistance = Rse

Terminal voltage, V  Eg  I a Ra  I se Rse  Eg  I a  Ra  Rse 

Including brush contact drop, V  Eg  I a  Ra  Rse   2vb …(4.22)

Power developed = Eg I a ; Power output = VI L  VI a

(iii) Compound Wound Generators

In a compound wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole. One of
them is connected in series (having few turns of thick wire) and the other is connected in
parallel (having many turns of fine wire) with armature. A compound wound generator may
be;

(a) Long shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the combination
of both armature and series field winding. The conventional diagram of lone shunt
compound generator is shown in Fig. 4.58.
Important relations

V
Shunt field current, I sh 
Rsh

Series field current, I se  I a  I L  I sh …(4.23)

Terminal voltage, V  E g  I a Ra  I se Rse

= Eg  I a  Ra  Rse 

Including brush contact drop, V  Eg  I a  Ra  Rse   2vb …(4.24)

Power developed = Eg I a ; Power output = VI L

(b) Short shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with only armature
winding. The conventional diagram of short shunt compound generator is shown in Fig.
4.59.

Important relations

Series field current, I se  I L

V  I L Rse
Shunt field current, I sh 
Rsh

Eg  I a Ra
= …(4.25)
Rsh

I a  I L  I sh

Terminal voltage, V  E g  I a Ra  I L Rse

Including brush contact drop, V  Eg  I a Ra  I L Rse  2vb …(4.26)

Power developed = Eg I a ; Power output = VI L

Cumulatively and Differentially Compound-wound Generators

In compound wound DC generators, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series
winding. Generally the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When the series field
assist the shunt field, the generator is called as cumulatively compound wound generator
[see Fig. 4.60(a)]. However, when the series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is
known as differentially compound wound generator [see Fig. 4.60(b)].

4.30 Voltage Regulation of a DC Shunt Generator

At no-load, the voltage at the terminals of a shunt generator is maximum and is called no-
load generated emf When load is applied on the generator, the terminal voltage decreases
due to drop in the armature circuit.

Generated voltage or voltage at the terminals at no-load

P ZN
E g  E0
60 A

At full load, the terminal voltage is

V  Eg  I a fl  Ra  Vb

Where, I a fl  = Full-load armature current

Ra = Armature resistance
 Vb = Total voltage drop at the brushes

The rise in terminal voltage from full-load to no-load at constant speed of a DC generator is
called its voltage regulation. It is expressed as a percentage of full-load terminal voltage i.e.,

E0  V
% Voltage regulation =  100 …(4.27)
V

4.31 Characteristics of DC Generators

To determine the relation between different quantities of a DC generator, the following are
the important characteristics of DC generators:

1. No-load characteristics. It is also known as magnetic characteristics or open-circuit

characteristics (O.C.C.). It shows the relation between the no-load generated emf in the
armature (E0) and the field current (i.e., exciting current) I f , at a specified speed.

2. External characteristics. It is also called the performance characteristics. It shows the

relation between the terminal voltage (V) and the load current I L .

3. Internal Characteristics. It is also known as total characteristics. It gives the relation

between the emf actually induced in the armature (Eg ) and the armature current I a .

4.32 No-load Characteristics of DC Generators or Magnetisation Curve of DC Generator

It shows the relation between the no-load generated emf in the armature (E0) and the field
current I f , at a specified speed. To obtain this characteristics, proceed as follows:

Open the field winding of the generator and connect it to a separate DC source through a
rheostat as shown in Fig. 4.67. Connect an ammeter in the field circuit and a voltmeter
across the armature. Reduce the field current to zero and run the armature at a specified
speed. Get the reading of voltmeter and mark the point ‘a’ on the graph. To plot the
characteristics take field current I f along X-axis and no-load generated emf (E0) along Y-

axis. Increase the field current in steps and get the corresponding voltmeter readings. Plot
these values on the graph. The curve thus obtained (shown in Fig. 4.68) shows the no-load
characteristics or open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.) of the generator.
Analysis of the curve

While analysing the curve, the following points are worth noting:

1. The curve starts from point ‘a’ instead of ‘O’ when the field current is zero. It is because
of the residual magnetism of the poles.

2. The initial part of the curve (ab) is almost a straight line because at this stage the
magnetic material is unsaturated and it has high permeability.

3. After point ‘b’ the curve bends and the generated emf (E0 ) becomes almost constant.
It is because after point ‘b’, the poles (magnetic material) starts getting saturated.

4.33 Voltage Build-up in Shunt Generators

The shunt generator is a self-excited DC generator whose field winding is supplied current
from the output of the generator itself. But question arises how it can supply current to the
field winding before the voltage being generated? And if the field current is not supplied,
how can the voltage be generated? Let us find out its answer from the following
explanation.

The open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator is shown in Fig. 4.69(b). The shunt
field resistance is represented by a straight line OX. When armature is rotated at a constant
speed of  rad/sec, the small residual flux of the poles is cut by the armature conductors,
and very small emf (oa) is induced in the armature. If now key (K) connected in the shunt
field winding, as shown in Fig. 4.69(a), is closed, current ob flows in the field winding. This
current increases the flux produced by the poles and voltage generated in the armature is
increased to oc which further increases the field current to od which further builds up the
voltage. This building up action comes to an end at point f where the o.c.c. intersects the
shunt field resistance line OX. It is, because beyond this point, the induced voltage is less
than that required to maintain the corresponding field current. Thus, the final current in the
field winding is ef and the final voltage build up by the generator for a given O.C.C. is oe as
shown in Fig. 4.69(b).

4.34 Critical Field Resistance of a DC Shunt Generator

The open circuit characteristic of a DC shunt generator are shown in Fig. 4.70. The line OX
is drawn in such a way that its slope gives the field winding resistance, i.e.,

OB  in volt 
Rsh 
OC  in ampere 

In this case, the generator can build up a maximum voltage OB with a shunt field resistance
Rsh. A line OY represents a smaller resistance. With this resistance, the generator can build
up a maximum voltage OF which is slightly more than OB. If the field resistance is increased,
the slope of the resistance line increases. Consequently the maximum voltage which the
generator can build up, at a specified speed, decreases. If the value of Rsh is increased to
such an extent that the resistance line does not cut the no-load characteristics at all (OZ),
then it is apparent that the voltage will not be built-up (i.e., the generator fails to excite).

If the resistance line (OP) just coincide with the slope of the curve, at this value of field
resistance, the generator will just excite. This resistance, given by the tangent to the O.C.C.
is called the critical resistance at a specified speed.

Thus, the slope of the tangent drawn on the O.C.C. is called critical resistance.

Critical resistance of a field winding. It is that maximum value resistance of a field winding
which is required to build-up voltage in a generator. If the value of field resistance is more
than this value, the generator would not build-up the voltage.

Critical load resistance. The minimum value of load resistance on a DC shunt generator with
which it can be in position to build-up is called its critical load resistance.

Critical speed of a DC shunt generator. It is the speed of a DC shunt generator at which

shunt field resistance will represent the critical field resistance.

4.35 Load Characteristics of Shunt Generator

It is also called external or performance characteristics of shunt generator. It shows relation

between the terminal voltage V on load and the load current I L . To obtain this

characteristics, proceed as follows:

Connect an ammeter A1 and rheostat in the field circuit and an ammeter A2 and voltmeter
V on the load side as shown in Fig. 4.71. Apply a variable load across the terminals. At start
switch off the load and run the generator at rated speed. No-load emf (generated voltage
Eg ) will appear across the voltmeter. Then switch on the load through switch S and increase
the load gradually keeping field current (ammeter reading A1 ) constant with the help of
rheostat Rh. Take the readings of voltmeter V and ammeter A2 at various instants and plot
the curve. The curve so obtained is shown in Fig. 4.71.
Analysis of the Curve

While analysis the curve, the following points are highlighted:

1. At no-load, the voltage across the terminals is maximum and is considered to be equal
to generated emf Eg .

2. As the load is increased gradually, the load current I L increases but the terminal voltage

decreases. The decrease in voltage is because of the following reasons:

(i) Due to increase in voltage drop in the armature resistance ( I a Ra )

(ii) Due to armature reaction, when load current or armature current I a increases, the

demagnetising effect of the armature field increases on the main field which reduced
the induced emf Consequently the terminal voltage decreases.

(iii) The drop in terminal voltage further causes decreases in field current. This will, in
turn, causes the decrease in induced emf which reflects the drop in terminal voltage.
However, the field current can be kept constant by adjusting the rheostat connected
in the field circuit.

3. During initial portion of the curve AB, the tendency of the voltage drop due to armature
resistance is more than armature reaction.

4. At point B these two effects neutralise each other.

5. After point B, armature reaction dominates and the curve turns back (BC portion of the
curve), as shown in Fig. 4.72.

6. The point C at which the external characteristic cuts the current axis corresponds to a
gradual short circuit.
4.36 Load Characteristics of Series Generators

In this generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature and load (see
Fig. 4.73). Therefore, full armature current I a flows through it. When load increases, I a

increases which increases flux and consequently generated emf is also increased. This,
correspondingly increases the terminal voltage V. Thus, a series generator has a rising
characteristic (curve OA) as shown in Fig. 4.73.

However, at higher loads, the terminal voltage begins to reduce because of the excessive
demagnetising effects of armature reaction. Ultimately, the terminal voltage reduces to
zero at load current OB as shown in Fig. 4.74.

4.37 Load Characteristics of Compound Generator

There are some applications where constant terminal voltage is essential. At such places,
shunt generator is not suitable, because its terminal voltage decreases with the increase in
load on it.

However it can be made suitable for such applications by connecting a few turns in series
with the armature as shown in Fig. 4.75. The field produced by these series turns assist the
field produced by the shunt winding. Such generators are known as compound generators.
In such generators when load current increases, the flux increases which increases the
induced emf This extra induced emf compensates the voltage drop in the armature
resistance and the demagnetising effect due to armature reaction. Hence, the terminal
voltage V remains substantially constant.

Degree of Compounding

A cumulatively – compound wound generator is shown in Fig. 4.75. Its level of compounding
can be changed by varying the amount of current passing through the series field winding
by connecting a by-pass rheostat Rh.

When the field current is adjusted such that the terminal voltage V on full load remains the
same as that on no-load, the generator is called to be level or flat compounded generator
(see Fig. 4.76).

When the terminal voltage on full-load is more than its terminal voltage at no-load, the
generator is called to be an over compounded generator.

On the other hand, when the terminal voltage on full-load is less than no-load voltage, the
generator is called to be as under compounded generator.

However, if the field produced by the series field winding acts in opposite direction to the
field produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is called to be differentially
compounded (see Fig. 4.76).

4.38 Causes of Failure to Build-up Voltage in a Generator

There may be one or more of the following reasons due to which a generator fails to build-
up voltage:
 1. When the residual magnetism in the field system is destroyed.

2. When the connections of the field winding are reversed. This, in fact, destroys the
residual magnetism due to which generator fails to build up voltage.

3. In case of shunt-wound generators, the other causes may be

(i) the resistance of shunt field circuit may be more than the critical resistance.

(ii) the resistance of load circuit may be less than critical resistance.

(iii) the speed of rotation may be below the rated speed.

4. In case of series-wound generators, the other causes may be

(i) the load circuit may be open: it may be due to faulty contact between brushes and
commutator or commutator surface may be greasy or dirty and making no contact with
the brushes.

(ii) the load circuit may have high resistance.

Rectification: If the generator is not building up because of absence of residual magnetism

due to any reason, the field coils should be connected to a DC source for a small period in
order to magnetise the poles.

4.39 Applications of DC Generators

Depending upon the characteristics of various types of DC generators, their important

applications are given below:

1. Separately excited DC generators. Although, these generators are more costly than self
excited generators as they require a separate source for their field excitation. But their
response to the change in field resistance is more quick and precise. Therefore, these are
employed where quick and definite response to control is important such as Ward–
Leonard System of speed control.

2. Shunt-wound DC generators. As they provide constant terminal voltage, they are best
suited for battery charging. Along with field regulators, they are also used for light and
power supply purposes.
 3. Series-wound DC generators. These generators have very few applications. Their best
application is in the DC locomotives, where they supply field current for regenerative
braking. They are also employed in series arc lighting. Another application of these
generators is as series boosters for increasing DC voltage across the feeders.

4. Compound-wound DC generators

(i) Over-compounded type. These are more suited for lighting and power services, as
they compensate for the voltage drop in the lines and voltage at the terminals of the
load remains constant.

(ii) Differential-compounded type. They are usefully employed as are welding sets. In
such cases, generator is practically short-circuited every time the electrode touches
the metal plates to be welded.

4.40 Losses in a DC Generator

While conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, a part of energy dissipated in
the form of heat in surrounding air is called losses in the generator.

These losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction in these losses leads to
higher efficiency. Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is the reduction
of these losses. The various losses occurring in a DC machine can be sub-divided as:

1. Copper losses.

2. Iron losses

3. Mechanical losses.

1. Copper losses. The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some
resistance. When current flows through them, there is power loss proportional to the
square of their respective currents. These power losses are called copper losses.

In general, the various copper losses in a DC machine are:

(i) Armature copper loss = I a2 Ra

(ii) Shunt field copper loss = I sh2 Rsh

 (iii) Series field copper loss = I se2 Rse

(iv) Interpole winding copper loss = I i2 Ri  I a2 Ri

(v) Brush contact loss = I a2 Rb or 2 I a vb

(vi) Compensating winding copper loss = I a2 Rc

The brush contact drop is generally included in armature copper losses.

2. Iron losses. The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC generator are known as iron
losses or core losses or magnetic loss. These losses consist of the following:

(i) Hysteresis loss. Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic

flux, this loss occurs. It is due to retentivity property of the material. It is expressed with
reasonable accuracy by the following expression: Ph  K h V f Bm1.6 ..…(4.28)

where, Kh = hysteresis constant in J/m3 i.e., energy loss per unit volume of magnetic material
during one magnetic reversal, its value depends upon nature of material;

V = Volume of magnetic material in m3 ;

f = frequency of magnetic reversal in cycle/second and

Bm = maximum flux density in the magnetic material in tesla.

It occurs in the rotating armature. To minimise this loss, the armature core is made of silicon
steel which has low hysteresis constant.

(ii) Eddy current loss. When flux linking with the magnetic material changes (or flux is cut by
the magnetic material) an emf is induced in it which circulates eddy currents through it.
These eddy currents produce eddy current loss in the form of heat. It is expressed with
reasonable accuracy by the expression:

Pe  K e V f 2 t 2 Bm2 …(4.29)

where, Ke = constant called co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature
of magnetic material;

t = thickness of lamination in m;
 V, f and Bm are the same as above.

The major part of this loss occur in the armature core. To minimise this loss, the armature
core is laminated into thin sheets (0.3 to 0.5 mm) since this loss is directly proportional to
the square of thickness of the laminations.

3. Mechanical losses. As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some power is

required to overcome:

(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss)

(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and commutator (friction loss).

These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses proper lubrication is
done at the bearings.

4.41 Constant and Variable Losses

The losses in a DC generator may also be sub-divided into:

1. Constant losses; 2. Variable losses

1. Constant losses. The losses in a DC machine which remain the same at all loads are
called constant losses. The constant losses in a DC machine are: (i) Iron losses; (ii)
Mechanical losses; (iii) Shunt field copper losses

2. Variable losses. The losses in DC machine which vary with load are called variable losses.
The variable losses in a DC machine are;

(i) Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss (iii) Interpole winding copper loss and
(iv) Compensating winding copper loss.

4.42 Stray Losses

The sum of the iron losses and mechanical losses in a DC machine are known as stray losses
i.e.,

Stray losses = Iron losses + Mechanical losses.

4.43 Power Flow Diagram

The mechanical power (  Tm) is supplied to the generator which is converted into electrical
power ( VI L ). While conversion, various losses occur in the machine. The power flow

diagram for a DC generator is shown in Fig. 4.77.

4.44 Efficiency of a DC Generator

The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC generator is called its efficiency.

output
Efficiency,  ; where, Power output = VI L watt
Input

Power input = Power output + Variable losses + Constant losses

Since the shunt field current I sh is very small as compared to line current,

therefore, I L  I a (neglecting Ish)

 Variable losses = I L2 Ra

Constant losses = Pc (say)

Then, power output = VI L  I L2 Ra  Pc

VI L
  …(4.30)
VI L  I L2 Ra  Pc

4.45 Condition for Maximum Efficiency

The efficiency of a DC generator is given as:

 output

output + variable losses + constant losses

VI L 1
=  …(4.31)
VI L  I L Ra  Pc 1  L a  Pc
2
I R
V VI L

Now, efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of eq. (i) in minimum i.e.,

d  I L Ra Pc 
1   =0
dI L  V VI L 

Ra Pc R P
or  2  0 or a  c2 or I L2 Ra  Pc
V VI L V VI L

i.e., Variable losses = Constant losses

Hence, the efficiency of a DC machine will be maximum when the line current is such that
constant loss is equal to the variable loss.

The line current at which the efficiency of DC machine is maximum.

Pc
IL  …(4.32)
Ra