buildings

Article
Identifying Problematic Soils Using Compressibility and
Suction Characteristics
Muawia Dafalla * and Ahmed M. Al-Mahbashi

Bugshan Research Chair in Expansive Soils, Expansive Soils, Civil Engineering, College of Engineering,
King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: The major problematic soils in semi-arid regions include expansive soils and collapsible
soils. These two types of soils cause problems and are hazardous for buildings when moisture is
introduced following a dry or semi-dry season. In order to assess the risk and damage likely to occur,
a protocol of investigation needs to be considered by geotechnical engineers to quantify and assess
the possible heave or collapse that may occur. The characterization and prediction of unsaturated
soil behavior in semi-arid areas can now be enabled following the advancement of unsaturated soil
mechanics. Heave is associated with the wetting of expansive soils, while excessive settlement or the
sudden loss of support may occur when water is introduced to collapsible soils. This work calls for
more than one parameter for the assessment of problematic soils to avoid misleading predictions
based on a single test. This study presents an investigation of two sets of soil samples obtained
from semi-arid areas in Saudi Arabia known for their collapsible or expansive nature. Tests under
controlled suction and variable effective stress were conducted. The air entry values, inflection
points, and residual points were established and compared for the two problematic soils. A series
of oedometer tests was conducted for typical soils, and settlement and collapse were measured and
assessed. The swell potential for the tested clays varied from 4% to 22%. It is possible to integrate
the data from the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) and compressibility tests with any project
specification and applied stresses to produce reliable recommendations for the construction and
protection of structures in hazardous soils.

Citation: Dafalla, M.; Al-Mahbashi, Keywords: expansive clay; collapsible soil; structures; cementation; soil suction
A.M. Identifying Problematic Soils
Using Compressibility and Suction
Characteristics. Buildings 2024, 14, 521.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
1. Introduction
buildings14020521
Volume change, compressibility, and the swelling of soils are the main geotechnical fac-
Academic Editors: Xinquan Wang,
tors that are related to climate conditions and can influence soil behavior. The introduction
Kangyu Wang and Dong Su
of moisture to unsaturated soils is normally associated with a range of physico-chemical
Received: 3 December 2023 variations and the entire shake-up of the units composed of clay particles. The interlayer
Revised: 6 February 2024 spacing within octahedral and tetrahedral sheets is usually established due to chemistry
Accepted: 9 February 2024 and the balance of internal force that cause volume changes in the soil. This is clearly visible
Published: 14 February 2024 in agricultural soils known as black cotton soil or expansive clay, in which the volume
change cannot be mistaken. Non-agricultural soils composed of cemented sand grains
generally with low density can show a tendency to collapse when inundated with water.
The collapsible soils can also be made of silt and clays. Calcareous or gypsiferous clay
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. in which voids were created because of weathering or the washing out of fines can also
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
collapse when inundated. Azam [1] investigated the collapse and compressibility behavior
This article is an open access article
of typical soil from an Eastern province in Saudi Arabia. When inundating expansive
distributed under the terms and
soils, the water can cause the internal structure to re-arrange, while in collapsible soils, the
conditions of the Creative Commons
water tends to dilute the cementation. When water is introduced to clay particles with
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
minerals known for their expansion properties, the interparticle distance between the silica
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
tetrahedron and silica octahedron sheets increases due to van der Waals forces. This force

Buildings 2024, 14, 521. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020521 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14

Buildings 2024, 14, 521 2 of 13

the silica tetrahedron and silica octahedron sheets increases due to van der Waals forces.
This force
can be can be
defined as defined
the sum as
of the sum of the
the electrical electrical
forces forcesand
that attract thatrepel
attract andand
atoms repel atoms
molecules.
and molecules. These forces are distinct from covalent and ionic chemical
These forces are distinct from covalent and ionic chemical bonding because they arise from bonding be-
cause they arise from variations in particle charge densities. This is usually
variations in particle charge densities. This is usually repulsive in expansive soils and repulsive in
expansive soils and pushes adjacent sheets apart. Both types of soils are common
pushes adjacent sheets apart. Both types of soils are common in Saudi Arabia (Figure 1). in Saudi
Arabia (Figure 1).
The Kingdom The Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia isofaSaudi Arabia
typical arid toissemi-arid
a typical arid to semi-arid
region regionchanges
where weather where
weather
are due changes are due of
to short periods to rainy
short periods
seasons.of rainy seasons.

Distributionofofexpansive
Figure1.1.Distribution
Figure expansiveand
andcollapsible
collapsiblesoil
soilininSaudi
SaudiArabia.
Arabia.

The property that defines the relationship between soil suction and corresponding
The property that defines the relationship between soil suction and corresponding
water content is the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC). The soil suction is known as
water content is the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC). The soil suction is known as
an indicator of the soil’s capability to attract moisture and was found to be very closely
an indicator of the soil’s capability to attract moisture and was found to be very closely
related to swelling and expansion. This was not the case when highly expansive clays were
related to swelling and expansion. This was not the case when highly expansive clays were
stabilized using cement or lime. High suction in this case may not produce high expansion
stabilized using cement or lime. High suction in this case may not produce high expansion
due to particle cementation and the chemistry of the soil particles. Direct measurements of
due to particle cementation and the chemistry of the soil particles. Direct measurements
the swelling or collapse potential are usually conducted at a specific stress level. This stress
oflevel
the may
swelling or collapse
be required potential
to increase or are usuallyAconducted
decrease. model based at aonspecific stress level.
a measurable This
parameter
stress
can belevel mayfor
reliable be predicting
required toorincrease
correcting or decrease.
assumed A model
test results. based on a measurable pa-
rameter can be reliable for predicting or correcting assumed
The use of a soil suction profile, or SWCC, can help in predicting test results. the behavior of
The use of a soil suction profile, or SWCC, can
the soil at a different stress level. The SWCC can either be determined help in predicting theinbehavior of the
the laboratory
soil
or established using correlations with soil properties. The expansive soil will resultorin
at a different stress level. The SWCC can either be determined in the laboratory
established
heave when using correlations
subjected with soil
to inundation properties.
and may cause The expansive
uplift, soil will
distortion, andresult
cracksinwithin
heavea
when
utilitysubjected
buildingtoorinundation and may cause
any light structure. uplift, distortion,
The soil–water and cracks
characteristic curveswithin a utility
(SWCC), can
building or any light structure. The soil–water characteristic curves
be utilized as the main tool to assess and predict the soil’s response to wetting and drying (SWCC), can be uti-
lized
whenasconsidered
the main tool with toone
assess and predict
or more the soil’s response
direct compression to wetting and drying when
measurements.
considered with one or more direct compression measurements.
Zheng et al. [2] stated that many provinces and regions in China reported the occur-
renceZheng et al. [2] stated
of expansive that many
soils. Zheng and provinces and regions
Yang [3] stated that 3300 in China
km ofreported
highways theinoccur-
China
rence of expansive
pass over expansive soils. Zheng
soils. Kattiand Yang [3] stated
[4] described that 3300soil
the expansive kmin ofIndia,
highways in China
also known as
pass
black over
cottonexpansive
soil, as soils.
beingKatti
highly [4]plastic,
described withthe expansive
a liquid limit soil in range
in the India, ofalso
40 known
to 100 and as
black cotton
a plastic soil,
limit of as
20being
to 60.highly
Methods plastic, with a liquidfor
and approaches limit
thein the range ofof40clays
stabilization to 100
in and
expan- a
plastic limit of 20 to 60. Methods and approaches for the stabilization
sive soils were reviewed for lightly loaded structures. The removal of soil or partial soil of clays in expansive
soils were reviewed
replacement for lightlyaffect
will significantly loaded thestructures. The removal
cost of pavement or other of infrastructure
soil or partial facilities.
soil re-
placement
Houston etwill significantly
al. [5] reported aaffectsurvey theoncost of pavement
expansive soils inorArizona
other infrastructure
(USA). facilities.
Houston TheetTabuk
al. [5]and
reported
Tayma a survey
regionson areexpansive
underlainsoils in Arizona
by clayey shale(USA).
which is known for its
The Tabuk
expansive and and Tayma
swelling regions
nature. are underlain
These by clayey
areas reported shale which
problems of heave is known
affecting forlight
its
structuresand
expansive andswelling
pavements. Major
nature. highways
These from Tabuk
areas reported to Tayma
problems and Medina
of heave affecting need
lightto
be replaced
structures and [6]. These highways
pavements. were constructed
Major highways from Tabuk for more
to Tayma thanand
three decades
Medina needto create
to be
links between major cities. The classification and design standards
replaced [6]. These highways were constructed for more than three decades to create links used were much lower
than the present existing highways and roads. We can state that the old roads were not
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

Buildings 2024, 14, 521 3 of 13

between major cities. The classification and design standards used were much lower than
the present existing highways and roads. We can state that the old roads were not de-
signed to accommodate the uplift that occurs due to the wetting of expansive clays. Fre-
designed to accommodate the uplift that occurs due to the wetting of expansive clays.
quent repairs were not successful, and the authorities suggested replacement highways
Frequent repairs were not successful, and the authorities suggested replacement highways
with higher specifications and good drainage. The cost of reconstruction and maintenance
with higher specifications and good drainage. The cost of reconstruction and maintenance
iningeneral
generalwaswasestimated
estimatedatathundreds
hundredsofofmillions
millionsofofUSUSdollars
dollarsannually,
annually,butbutininreality,
reality,itit
can
can amount to several billion US dollars. No surveys were made to determine theextent
amount to several billion US dollars. No surveys were made to determine the extent
and
andsize
sizeofofthe
thedamage
damageassociated
associatedwith
withcollapsible
collapsiblesoils,
soils,butbutthis
thiscan
canbebeestimated
estimatedtotobe be
millions of dollars annually. Collapsible soils were reported in the central
millions of dollars annually. Collapsible soils were reported in the central parts of Saudiparts of Saudi
Arabia
Arabiawhere
wherelow lowdensity,
density, silty, and clayey
silty, and clayey sands
sandsare
arepresent.
present.Weakly
Weaklycemented
cementedcollapsible
collapsi-
ble soils introduce high settlement and deformation when wetted.
soils introduce high settlement and deformation when wetted. The Saudi Building Code The Saudi Building
Code
(SBC (SBC 303) presents
303) presents measures
measures and procedures
and procedures to be adopted
to be adopted in local in local practice
practice for
for swelling
swelling and collapsible soils. The damage to roads and pavements takes
and collapsible soils. The damage to roads and pavements takes different forms, from different forms,
from
minorminor cracking
cracking to serious
to serious folding
folding andand distortion
distortion (i.e.,
(i.e., Figure
Figure 2a).Figure
2a). Figure2b 2bpresents
presentsa
asuggested
suggesteddrainage
drainagestyle
styleto
toreduce
reducethetheinundation
inundationofofsubgrade
subgradesoils.soils.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure2.2.(a)
(a)King
KingAbdul-Aziz
Abdul-Azizaccess
accessroad
roadtotoAl-Ghatt
Al-Ghattand
and(b)
(b)suggested
suggesteddrainage
drainagestyle
styletotoreduce
reduce
inundation of subgrade soils.
inundation of subgrade soils.

Expansivesoils
Expansive soils in Saudi
Saudi Arabia
Arabiaarearecovered
coveredbyby many
many studies
studiesconducted
conducted in the
in research
the re-
centers
search of King
centers of Saud University,
King Saud King Abdul-Aziz
University, King Abdul-AzizUniversity, and King
University, FahadFahad
and King University
Uni-
of Petroleum
versity and Minerals.
of Petroleum The works
and Minerals. The of Erol of
works and Dhowian
Erol [7] highlighted
and Dhowian the swelling
[7] highlighted the
swelling and shrinking nature of Al-Medinah clay. They subjected the clay to cyclesand
and shrinking nature of Al-Medinah clay. They subjected the clay to cycles of wetting of
drying.and
wetting They noticed
drying. a reduction
They noticed ainreduction
swelling when the clay
in swelling whenwasthepartially
clay wasdried, unlike
partially
whenunlike
dried, the clay was the
when fully shrunk,
clay which
was fully caused
shrunk, the swelling
which caused the to increase.
swelling to They also noticed
increase. They
thatnoticed
also after multiple cycles
that after of drying
multiple and
cycles ofwetting,
drying andthe fabric
wetting, of the
theclay
fabricwasofdestroyed
the clay wasand
disoriented.
destroyed andAbduljauwad
disoriented. [8] compared the
Abduljauwad [8]laboratory
comparedswelling potential
the laboratory of the calcareous
swelling potential
ofclay
theofcalcareous
the eastern province
clay of the of Saudiprovince
eastern Arabia toofthe swelling
Saudi Arabia potential
to the measured in a field
swelling potential
section. The results were in very close agreement.
measured in a field section. The results were in very close agreement.
Al-Mhaidib[9]
Al-Mhaidib [9] covered
covered the the swelling
swelling behavior
behavior ofof expansive
expansivesoils soilsininthe
themiddle
middleregion
regionof
Saudi Arabia. He found that the testing methodology affects the measured
of Saudi Arabia. He found that the testing methodology affects the measured swelling swelling pressure.
pressure.Other studies covering expansive soil behavior include the research works of
Abduljauwad
Other studieset al.covering
[10], Al-Muhaidib
expansive [11], Al-Muhaidib
soil behavior includeet al. [12–14],
the research andworks
Al-Shamrani
of Ab-
duljauwad et al. [10], Al-Muhaidib [11], Al-Muhaidib et al. [12–14], and Al-Shamraniexpan-
et al. [15,16]. Shamrani et al. [15] conducted a characterization survey of problematic et al.
sive soils
[15,16]. from regions
Shamrani including
et al. [15] conducted Tabuk, Al-Hafuf, Al-Qatif,
a characterization surveyand ofAl-Ghatt
problematic andexpansive
compared
the mineralogy
soils from regions and swellingTabuk,
including behavior.
Al-Hafuf, Al-Qatif, and Al-Ghatt and compared the
Studies conducted by Erol and Dhowian [17], Aiban [18], Dafalla et al. [19], Shaker
mineralogy and swelling behavior.
and Elkady [20], Al-Mahbashi [21], Al-Mahbashi and Elkady [22], and Elkady et al. [23]
Studies conducted by Erol and Dhowian [17], Aiban [18], Dafalla et al. [19], Shaker
all addressed the geotechnical parameters and behavior of different types of highly plastic
and Elkady [20], Al-Mahbashi [21], Al-Mahbashi and Elkady [22], and Elkady et al. [23]
soils encountered in Saudi Arabia. The term “collapsible soil” has been used since 1970, but
all addressed the geotechnical parameters and behavior of different types of highly plastic
the existence of this type of soil has been recognized since World War II [24]. Al-Rawas [24]
soils encountered in Saudi Arabia. The term “collapsible soil” has been used since 1970,
conducted a comprehensive review of collapsible soils and addressed several treatment
but the existence of this type of soil has been recognized since World War II [24]. Al-Rawas
methods, such as soil replacement, compaction control, and chemical stabilization.
[24] conducted a comprehensive review of collapsible soils and addressed several treat-
Holtz and Hilf [25] published useful studies describing the effect of saturation on
ment methods, such as soil replacement, compaction control, and chemical stabilization.
soils showing a collapsed nature. The collapsible soil is present in Riyadh, the capital of
Saudi Arabia [26]. Characterization studies were conducted by many geotechnical agencies
(e.g., Al Rajhi Hydrosoil). In general, this type of soil is a weakly cemented sand formation.
Al-Refeai and Al-Shenawy [27] studied the improvement of collapsible soils in Saudi Arabia.
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 4 of 13

Al-Harthi and Bankher [28] examined the collapsible loess-like soil in the western part
of Saudi Arabia. They investigated material from Alyotama Valley consisting of silt with
low plasticity, a high void ratio, and low density. Their study confirmed that the collapse
increases with a decrease in soil density.
An irrecoverable collapse strain upon wetting was observed by Alawaji [29] for Al
Dalam soils. This study aims to introduce common investigations carried out for these two
types of soils and to present test results for selected samples representing each type. It was
understood that high suction is associated with high swelling behavior according to many
researchers, but this did not prove true for many types of clay materials. The suction can
cause water to move into the interlayer particle zones, but this does not mean the clay will
expand. Chemistry and cementation have a role in this process. The concept introduced
in this research is to assess the clays using double or multiple parameters. This is aimed
at viewing suction profiles in light of the compressibility or collapse tests conducted. The
suction test can either be conducted in the laboratory or constructed using correlations.
It is known that SWCC can be used to predict a range of geotechnical parameters, but
these need to be associated with a direct test measurement. A single or multiple direct test
measurements can help the geotechnical design engineer to estimate the compression or
heave of a problematic material correctly.
The potential settlement (ρ) that may occur in a soil layer under the applied vertical
stress is obtained as follows:
ρ = (H × Ic )/100 (1)
where
H = Thickness of the soil layer.
Ic = Collapse potential, determined using a predetermined applied vertical stress applied
to a soil specimen taken from the soil layer as follows:

Ic = 100 × (df − di )/ho (2)

where
di = Specimen height at the appropriate stress level before wetting.
df = Specimen height at the appropriate stress level after wetting.
ho = Initial specimen height.
Al-Mahabashi and Dafalla [30] can be followed to plot the SWCC curves from the fol-
lowing correlations against the plastic limit, plasticity index, and shrinkage limit, if known.

θs = 18.212 ln (wp ) − 19.957 (3)

AEV(kPa) = 0.7245(Pl) + 2.9282 (4)

θr1 = 17.212 ln (wp ) − 24.297 (5)
sr1 = 4 × 106 (wSh ) −3.635 (6)
where:
θs = Saturated water content;
AEV = Air-entry value;
θr1 = Residual water content;
sr1 = Residual suction;
wp = Plastic limit;
wSh = Shrinkage limit;
PI = Plasticity index.
This paper calls for conducting compressibility, swell, and collapse potential tests at
predetermined stresses along with soil suction examinations. This approach provides a
confirmatory evidence that covers more than one prediction method.
 w𝑆ℎ = Shrinkage limit;
PI = Plasticity index.
This paper calls for conducting compressibility, swell, and collapse potential tests at
predetermined stresses along with soil suction examinations. This approach provides a
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 confirmatory evidence that covers more than one prediction method. 5 of 13

2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials
2.1. Materialsand Methods
2.1. Materials
In this study, three types of expansive clay materials, widely present in Saudi Arabia,
In this study,Al-Qatif
are investigated: three types
clay,ofAl-Gatt
expansive
clay,clay
andmaterials,
Tabuk clay.widely present
Al-Qatif is theinhighest
Saudi inArabia,
plas-
are investigated:
ticity, while TabukAl-Qatif clay, Al-Gatt
and Al-Ghatt clay, andtoTabuk
are considered clay. Al-Qatif
have medium is theTypical
plasticity. highestcol-
in
plasticity, while Tabuk and Al-Ghatt are considered to have medium plasticity.
lapsible soils were obtained from a site in Al Janadriyah district, east of Riyadh. Six sam- Typical col-
lapsible
ples from soils were
two obtained
locations withfrom a site depths
variable in Al Janadriyah district,
were studied. eastlocations
These of Riyadh. areSix samples
marked as
from
CC and twoPC locations
followed with variable depths
by numbers, were studied.
as indicated. These locations
To demonstrate that high are marked
suction as can
soils CC
and PC followed
indicate by numbers,
lower swelling behavior,aslime-treated
indicated. To demonstrate
clay samples from that high
the suction
Al-Qatif soilswith
district can
indicate lower swelling
a lime addition behavior,
of 2%, 4%, and 6%lime-treated clay samples from the Al-Qatif district with
were examined.
a limeTheaddition
use of of 2%, measurement
direct 4%, and 6% were examined.
of the strength parameter approach is recommended
as a confirmatory protocol to exclude the strength
The use of direct measurement of the possible parameter approach
overestimation is recommended
or underestimation of
as a confirmatory
geotechnical properties.protocol to exclude the possible overestimation or underestimation of
geotechnical properties.
2.2. Testing Procedures
2.2. Testing Procedures
The routine classification tests were conducted on the selected expansive clay in ac-
The routine classification tests were conducted on the selected expansive clay in
cordance with the applicable ASTM testing methods used (ASTM D 2487-17 and ASTM
accordance with the applicable ASTM testing methods used (ASTM D 2487-17 and ASTM
D7928, 2017) [31,32]. The liquid limit varied from 43 to 160. The maximum dry density
D7928, 2017) [31,32]. The liquid limit varied from 43 to 160. The maximum dry density
varied from 11.8 to 16.6 kN/m3 at an optimum moisture content in the range of 17% to 38%
varied from 11.8 to 16.6 kN/m3 at an optimum moisture content in the range of 17% to 38%
(ASTM D698, 2000) [33]. The specific gravity and initial water content for collapsible soils
(ASTM D698, 2000) [33]. The specific gravity and initial water content for collapsible soils
were determined. The typical grain size distribution for expansive and collapsible soils is
were determined. The typical grain size distribution for expansive and collapsible soils is
given in
given in Figure
Figure 3.
3.

Figure 3. Typical
Figure 3. Typical grain
grain size
size distribution
distribution for
for expansive
expansive and
and collapsible
collapsiblesoils.
soils.

2.2.1.
2.2.1. Swelling,
Swelling, Consolidation,
Consolidation, and
and Collapse
Collapse Potential
Potential Determination
Determination
Oedometer swelling and consolidation tests were carried out for the three selected
expansive clays: Qatif, Al-Ghatt, and Tabuk. The specimens were prepared for this test by
static compaction at the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. The test
procedure was in accordance with ASTM D-2435-11 [34].
The standard test method described by ASTM was used to determine the collapse
potential of selected specimens using a one-dimensional consolidation cell. The specimens
were loaded at a certain stress level, namely one that is normally comparable to the
foundation bearing pressure, and then inundated with distilled water.
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 6 of 13

2.2.2. Determination of Suction and Soil–Water Content Relationship

The property that describes the relationship between suction and soil–water content
is referred to as the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC). The soil water characteristic
curve SWCC test was carried out for three expansive soils and six collapsible soils using
the axis translation technique. The pressure plate extractor apparatus was used for this
purpose (ASTM D6836-16) [35]. The device was used in several research studies and
testing procedures [36–38]. The testing procedure begins with the compacting of the soil
specimens to a selected initial molding state, generally at the optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density. The saturation procedure was performed under a slight vertical
stress equivalent to 7 kPa. The samples were subjected to increasing matric suction in
several steps (10, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1400 kPa). To measure the drying path of
SWCC, each step was continued for two to three days until equilibrium was attained and
no further flow of water through the soil specimen took place. Figure 4 shows the pressure
plate device and a set of specimens used in the test. The laboratory data were fitted to the
Fredlund and Xing [39] equation. The collapsible soils were subjected to the collapse test in
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
an oedometer (ASTM D 4546-14) [40] at specific inundation stress levels. Two sets of 7 of
CC 14
and PC samples were inundated at stress levels of 25 and 100 kN/m . 2

Figure 4. Soil
Figure4. Soil specimen
specimeninside
insidepressure
pressureplate
platecell
cell(axis
(axistranslation
translationtechnique).
technique).

3.
3. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
Table
Table11presents
presentsthe index
the indexproperties
propertiesandand
compaction test results
compaction for the
test results forselected three
the selected
types
three of expansive
types soils. soils.
of expansive TableTable
2 presents the specific
2 presents gravity
the specific and and
gravity initial water
initial content
water con-
for
tentthe
forsix
theselected collapsible
six selected soils soils
collapsible fromfrom
Al-Janadriyah in Riyadh.
Al-Janadriyah Figure
in Riyadh. 5 presents
Figure the
5 presents
the suction profile for Al-Qatif clay under different effective stresses [40]. It can be shown
that the suction is variable for different effective stresses up to a suction level of 1500
kN/m2. From the SWCC plot it can be observed that the gravimetric water content is lower
for high effective stresses.
 Buildings 2024, 14, 521 7 of 13

suction profile for Al-Qatif clay under different effective stresses [40]. It can be shown that
the suction is variable for different effective stresses up to a suction level of 1500 kN/m2 .
From the SWCC plot it can be observed that the gravimetric water content is lower for high
effective stresses.

Table 1. Index properties and compaction test results of three types of expansive soils.

Optimum Maximum
Specific
Liquid Plastic Shrinkage Moisture Dry
Soil/Property Gravity,
Limit, (%) Limit, (%) Limit, (%) Content, Density,
(Gs)
(%) (kN/m2 )
Al-Qatif 2.7 160.0 60.0 15.0 38.0 11.8
Ghatt 2.9 59.3 33.0 14.0 24.7 16.0
Tabuk 2.8 43.0 27.0 21.0 17.0 16.6

Table 2. Specific gravity and initial water content for collapsible soils from Al-Janadriyah.

Sample Code Specific Gravity Initial Water Content (%)

Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
PC-3 (3.0–3.5) 2.703 8.720
PC-6 (3.0–4.0) 2.672 4.010
CC-4 (2.8–3.4) 2.637 2.200
CC-4 (2.8–3.4) 2.637 2.200
CC-3 (2.0–3.5) 2.666 3.340
CC-3 (2.0–3.5) 2.666 3.340
PC-3 (4.5–5.0)
PC-3 (4.5–5.0) 2.648
2.648 8.720
8.720
CC-2 (1.7–2.2)
CC-2 (1.7–2.2) AA 2.683
2.683 0.840
0.840
CC-2
CC-2 (1.7–2.2)
(1.7–2.2) BB 2.716
2.716 0.840
0.840

Suctionunder
Figure5.5.Suction
Figure underdifferent
differenteffective
effectivestresses
stresses[21].
[21].

Figure6a
Figure 6apresented
presented the
the swell
swell potential
potentialand
andconsolidation of of
consolidation lime-treated Al-Qatif
lime-treated clay
Al-Qatif
with 2%, 4%, and 6% lime content. Figure 6b presents the SWCC of lime-treated
clay with 2%, 4%, and 6% lime content. Figure 6b presents the SWCC of lime-treated Al- Al-Qatif
clay clay
Qatif withwith
the same limelime
the same concentrations.
concentrations.
From the results of the compressibility of Al-Qatif soils treated with lime, it can be
noted that the swell is reduced when the soil has 4% and 6% lime content. The compres-
sion index becomes flatter by increasing the lime content. The suction remained high at
the tested moisture content. This is attributed to the cementation provided by the poz-
zolanic reactions that took place; however, cementation can be due to additives, particle
chemistry, or mineralogy. The main highlight of this research is that a high suction level
measured for soil does not necessarily indicate a high-swell soil.
The oedometer and swelling test results for the three tested types of clay are pre-
 Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 8 of 13

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. and
Figure 6. (a) Swell potential (a) Swell potentialofand
consolidation limeconsolidation of clay.
treated Al-Qatif lime (b)
treated
SWCCAl-Qatif clay. (b) SWCC o
of lime-treated
Al-Qatif clay. treated Al-Qatif clay.

From the results of the compressibility of Al-Qatif soils treated with lime, it can be
noted that the swell is reduced when the soil has 4% and 6% lime content. The compression
index becomes flatter by increasing the lime content. The suction remained high at the
tested moisture content. This is attributed to the cementation provided by the pozzolanic
 Buildings 2024, 14, 521 9 of 13

reactions that took place; however, cementation can be due to additives, particle chemistry,
or mineralogy. The main highlight of this research is that a high suction level measured for
soil does not necessarily indicate a high-swell soil.
The oedometer and swelling test results for the three tested types of clay are presented
in Figure 7a. The swell potential expressed as vertical strain was found to be 22% for the
highly plastic clay of Al-Qatif, while only a 4 to 6% swell potential is recorded for the
medium plasticity clays of Al-Ghatt and Tabuk. A steeper slope for the plot of Al-Qatif clay
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
indicates higher compressibility compared to the other two clays. Air entry values10(where
of 14
the largest pores start to desaturate) for all expansive clays were encountered at a matric
suction of less than 100 kN/m2 (Figure 7b).

1 10 100 1,000 10,000

Stress, kPa

(a)

1 100 10,000 1,000,000

Martic suction, kPa
(b)
Figure
Figure7.7.(a)
(a)Swell
Swellpotential
potentialand
andconsolidation
consolidationofofexpansive
expansivesoils
soilsand
and(b)
(b)SWCCs
SWCCsofofexpansive
expansive soils.
soils.
Figure 8a presents the collapse potential for the two types of collapsible soils measured
at 25 and 100 kPa stresses. Figure 8b presents the soil–water characteristic curves for
collapsible soils. The retention capacity of these soils is less than the retention capacity of
expansive clays, and the air entry values for collapsible soils are within a tenth of those of
expansive clays.
The Saudi Building Code (SBC 303), Chapter 9 states that soil investigations shall
indicate the value or range of heave that might take place for the structure being studied.
Potential soil movement shall be determined based on the estimated depth of the active
zone in combination with either ASTM-D 4546 [40] or any other method that can be
documented and defended as part of good engineering practice in accordance with the
principles of unsaturated soil mechanics. Tables 3 and 4 present classification guides for
expansive and collapsible soils. The use of continuous or spread footings on expansive
soils is discouraged by the Saudi Building Code unless the subsurface is of low expansion

(a)
 Buildings 2024, 14, 521 10 of 13

potential. The swelling pressure can be counterbalanced by the weight of the structure if
applied 1pressures do 100not exceed the bearing
10,000 capacity of the soil. As recommended by SBC
1,000,000
303, the slab-on-grade (slab-on-ground) foundations on expansive soils shall be designed
Martic suction, kPa
and constructed in accordance with the WRI/CRSI “Design of Slab-on-Ground Foundations”.
The Saudi Building Code(b) SBC 303 also states that footings or foundations for buildings
and structures founded on collapsible soil areas shall be designed based on the collapse
Figure 7. (a) Swell potential and consolidation of expansive soils and (b) SWCCs of expansive
potential determined using the collapse index method, the standard plate load test method,
soils.
or BREA Building Regulations in Eastern Arriyadh Sensitive Soils Procedures (BPLT).

Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

(a)
30
25
Water content, %
20
15
10
5
0

0.01 1 100 10,000 1,000,000

Martic suction, kPa
(b)
Figure 8. (a)8.Compressibility
Figure and collapse
(a) Compressibility potential
and collapse tests for
potential collapsible
tests soils and
for collapsible (b)and
soils SWCC
(b) of col- of
SWCC
lapsible soils. soils.
collapsible

The 3.Saudi
Table Buildingof Code
Classification (SBCpotential.
expansion 303), Chapter 9 states that soil investigations shall
indicate the value or range of heave that might take place for the structure being studied.
Expansion shall
Potential soil movement Indexbe(EI)determined
* Expansiondepth
based on the estimated Potential
of the active
zone in combination with either
0–20 ASTM-D 4546 [40] or any other method
Very low that can be doc-
21–50
umented and defended as part of good engineering practice in accordance with the prin- Low
ciples of unsaturated soil 51–90
mechanics. Tables 3 and 4 present classification Medium guides for ex-
91–130 High
pansive and collapsible soils. The use of continuous or spread footings on expansive soils
>130 Very high
is discouraged by the Saudi Building Code unless the subsurface is of low expansion po-
* EI = {1000 × (final height of specimen − initial height of specimen)/initial height of specimen}, (SBC 303).
tential. The swelling pressure can be counterbalanced by the weight of the structure if
applied pressures do not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil. As recommended by SBC
303, the slab-on-grade (slab-on-ground) foundations on expansive soils shall be designed
and constructed in accordance with the WRI/CRSI “Design of Slab-on-Ground Founda-
tions”. The Saudi Building Code SBC 303 also states that footings or foundations for build-
ings and structures founded on collapsible soil areas shall be designed based on the col-
lapse potential determined using the collapse index method, the standard plate load test
method, or BREA Building Regulations in Eastern Arriyadh Sensitive Soils Procedures
(BPLT).
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 11 of 13

Table 4. Classification of collapse potential.

Collapse Index (Ie)a % Degree of Specimen Collapse

0 None
0.1–2.0 Slight
2.1–6.0 Moderate
6.1–10.0 Moderately severe
>10.0 Severe
(Ie )a = 100 × ∆e/(1 + eo ), where ∆e = change in void ratio resulting from wetting, and eo = initial void ratio (after
SBC 303).

Dafalla et al. [19] called for the use of protective measures for pavements using
clay–sand liners and suggested a drainage system. Pre-wetting approaches are not recom-
mended for expansive soil under pavement, as wetting requires a long time to inundate
the clay particles. The increase in pavement thickness and soil replacement can be helpful
in reducing the expansion level. It is very common in practice to consider the suction level
obtained in an SWCC test as a good predictor of expansion. This is generally valid and
acceptable for a wide range of clayey soils, but not true for all soils. High suction does
not necessarily imply high swelling. Expansive clays stabilized using cement or lime can
show very high suction but low swell potential [21,41,42]. It is common in the literature to
find prediction models that estimate the swelling pressure, swell potential, compressive
strength, etc. using the SWCC. These are not likely efficient if they do not involve other
strength parameters obtained for the subject soil. The call for a dual-parameter assessment
is suggested to rule out errors due to clays with variable mineralogy and chemical bonds.
The works of Almahbashi [21] indicate that soil suction for clays under variable
effective stress is not the same for suction levels less than 1000 kN/m2 .
Proposed treatments for collapsible soils include pre-wetting and heavy compaction
before laying the sub-base and base layers of the pavement; however, the increase in
cementation using additives can be considered, but it is likely very expensive. The suction
level of the collapsible soil cannot be used as a measure, as the skeleton cementation and
fabric of the soil can be lost when water is introduced. For pavement, the collapse potential
need to be tested at low stress levels, i.e., 20 to 30 kN/m2 . Heavy structures in a highway
inundated under a pressure of 100 kN/m2 may be a good approach.
The call for constructing the SWCC suction profile along with at least one direct
strength measurement test can help in extending the knowledge of soil behavior at different
moisture contents, and the curve can be used for various geotechnical predictions.
A single suction measurement cannot be a sufficient guide on the state of the swelling
or collapse. If the SWCC profile cannot be conducted using the right apparatus, correlation
formulas may be utilized. The works of Al-Mahabashi and Dafalla [30] can be followed to
plot the SWCC curves from the following correlations against the plastic limit, plasticity
index, and shrinkage limit, if known.

4. Conclusions
This paper presents a study on the geotechnical characteristics of the problematic soils
that are known to influence the construction of pavements and different types of structures.
The compressibility, swell, and collapse potential were studied at predetermined stresses.
Soil suction was examined using pressure plate tests for expansive and collapsible soils
selected for this study.
The protection of pavements and substructures using moisture barriers or proper
drainage is always recommended for these types of soil. The pre-wetting technique may
not work well for expansive soils under pavement due to the low hydraulic conductivity of
the clay. The knowledge of soil suction is of great importance when designing structures
supported by collapsible or expansive soil. The cementation, mineralogy, and chemistry of
the particles are the main factors determining the actual soil strength and the soil–water
characteristics themselves. This research recommends constructing SWCCs with at least
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 12 of 13

one strength parameter test for a better evaluation of problematic soils. The prediction of
strength properties from SWCCs needs to be counter-checked by a direct measurement test
to avoid non-realistic assumptions.
Cementation can be present due to additives, particle chemistry, or mineralogy. The
main highlight of this research is that a high suction level measured for soil does not
necessarily indicate a high swell soil.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.D.; data curation, A.M.A.-M.; funding acquisition,

M.D.; investigation, A.M.A.-M.; methodology, A.M.A.-M. and M.D.; writing—original draft, M.D.;
writing—review and editing, A.M.A.-M. and M.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: The Deanship of the Scientific Research, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are included in the
introduced figures.
Acknowledgments: The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research,
King Saud University, for funding this research through the Vice Deanship of Scientific Research
Chairs, Research Chair of Bugshan Research Chair in Expansive Soils.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Azam, S. Collapse and compressibility behaviour of arid calcareous soil formations. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2000, 59, 211–217.
[CrossRef]
2. Zheng, J.-L.; Zhang, R.; Yang, H.-P. Highway Subgrade Construction in Expansive Soil Areas. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2009, 21, 154–162.
[CrossRef]
3. Zheng, J.L.; Yang, H.P. Theory and Practice of Expansive Soil Treatment Technology; China Communication Press: Beijing, China, 2004.
4. Katti, R.K. Search for Solutions to Problems in Black Cotton Soils. IGC Annual Lecture. Indian Geotech. J. 1979, 9, 1–80.
5. Houston, S.L.; Dye, H.B.; Zapata, C.E.; Walsh, K.D.; Houston, W.N. Study of Expansive Soils and Residential Foundations on
Expansive Soils in Arizona. J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2011, 25, 31–44. [CrossRef]
6. Sabtan, A.A. Geotechnical properties of expansive clay shale in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2005, 25, 747–757.
[CrossRef]
7. Erol, O.; Dhowian, A.W. Swell and shrinkage behavior of medinah active clays. J. Eng. Sci. 1982, 8, 79–84.
8. Abduljauwad, S.N. Swelling behaviour of calcareous clays from the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol.
1994, 27, 333–351. [CrossRef]
9. Al-Muhaidib, A.I. Swelling Behaviour of expansive shales from the middle region of Saudi Arabia. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 1998, 16,
291–307. [CrossRef]
10. Abduljauwad, S.N.; Al-Sulaimani, G.J.; Basunbul, I.A.; Al-Buraim, I. Laboratory and field studies of response of structures to
heave of expansive clay. Geotechnique 1988, 48, 103–121. [CrossRef]
11. Al-Muhaidib, A.I. Effects of fiber on swell of expansive soils. In Proceedings of the 20th International Offshore and Polar
Engineering Conference, Beijing, China, 20–27 June 2010; pp. 20–25.
12. Al-Muhaidib, A.I.; Al-Shamrani, M.A. Influence of swell on shear strength of expansive soil. In Proceedings of the GeoEng.
Conference, International Society for Rock Mechanics, Melbourne, Australia, 19–24 November 2000.
13. Al-Muhaidib, A.I. Characteristics of expansive soil in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. J. King Saud Univ. Eng. Sci. 2003, 16, 1–34.
14. Al-Muhaidib, A.I. Mathematical model to predict swelling of expansive soil. In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference
of International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG), Goa, India, 6 October 2008; pp.
1–6.
15. Al-Shamrani, M.; Puppala, A.; Muawia, A.D.; Mutaz, E. Characterization of Problematic Expansive Soils from Mineralogical and Swell
Characterization Studies; GSP (Geotechnical Special Publication); ASCE—American Society for Civil Engineers: Reston, VA, USA,
2010; p. 199.
16. Al-Shamrani, M.A.; Al-Muhaidib, A.I. Prediction of potential vertical swell of expansive soils using a triaxial stress path cell. Q. J.
Eng. Geol. 1999, 32, 45–54. [CrossRef]
17. Erol, A.O.; Dowian, A. Swell behaviour of arid climate shales from Saudi Arabia. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 1990, 23, 243–254.
[CrossRef]
Buildings 2024, 14, 521 13 of 13

18. Aiban, S.A. Compressibility and swelling characteristics of Al-Khobar Palygorskite, eastern Saudi Arabia. Eng. Geol. 2006, 87,
205–219. [CrossRef]
19. Dafalla, M.; Shaker, A.; Al-Shamrani, M. Sustainable Road Shoulders and Pavement Protection for Expansive Soil Zones. Transp.
Res. Rec. 2022, 2676, 03611981221089295. [CrossRef]
20. Shaker, A.A.; Elkady, T.Y. Hydraulic performance of sand—Clay mixtures: Soil fabric perspective. Géotechnique Lett. 2015, 5,
198–204. [CrossRef]
21. Al-Mahbashi, A.M. Soil Water Characteristic Curves of Treated and Untreated Highly Expansive Soil Subjected to Different
Stresses. Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 2014.
22. Al-Mahbashi, A.M.; Elkady, T.Y. Prediction of unsaturated shear strength of expansive clays. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng.
2017, 170, 407–420. [CrossRef]
23. Elkady, T.Y.; Al-Mahbashi, A.; Dafalla, M.; Al-Shamrani, M. Effect of compaction state on the soil water characteristic curves of
sand–natural expansive clay mixtures. Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. 2017, 21, 289–302. [CrossRef]
24. Al-Rawas, A.A. State-of-the-Art Review of Collapsible Soils. Science and Technology, Special Review; Sultan Qaboos University: Al-Seeb,
Oman, 2002; pp. 115–135.
25. Holtz, W.G.; Hilf, J.W. Settlement of soil foundations due to saturation. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Paris, London, 17–22 July 1961; Volume 1, pp. 673–679.
26. El-Nimr, A.; Tabba, M.M.; Touma, F.T. Characterization of sensitive soils in Arriyadh. In Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Expansive Soils, Dallas, TX, USA, 3–5 August 1992; Volume 1, pp. 398–403.
27. Al-Refeai, T.O.; Al-Shenawy, A. Improvement of Collapsing Soils in Saudi Arabia. In Proceedings of the International Conference
on Ground Improvement Techniques, Macau, China, 6–8 May 1997; pp. 25–31.
28. Al-Harithy, A.A.; BaNakhr, K.A. Collapsing loess-like soil in western Saudi Arabia. J. Arid. Environ. 1999, 41, 383–399. [CrossRef]
29. Alawaji, H.A. Shear induced collapse settlement of arid soils. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2001, 19, 1–19. [CrossRef]
30. Al-Mahbashi, A.; Dafalla, M.; Al-Shamrani, M. Predicting soil-water characteristic curves of expansive soils relying on correlations.
Geomech. Eng. 2023, 23, 625–633.
31. ASTM D2478; Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). ASTM
International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2017.
32. ASTM D7928-2017; Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Fine-Grained Soils Using the Sedimentation
(Hydrometer) Analysis. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2017.
33. ASTM D698; Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3
(600 kNm/m3 )). D-18 Committee on Soils and Rocks. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2000; Volume 4.08.
34. ASTM D2435; Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading. ASTM
International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2011.
35. ASTM D6836; Standard Test Methods for Determination of the Soil Water Characteristic Curve for Desorption Using a Hanging
Column, Pressure Extractor, Chilled Mirror Hygrometer, and/or Centrifuge. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA,
USA, 2016.
36. Rahardjo, H.; Satyanaga, A.; D’Amore, G.A.; Leong, E.C. Soil–water characteristic curves of gap-graded soils. Eng. Geol. 2012, 125,
102–107. [CrossRef]
37. Elkady, T.Y.; Al-Mahbashi, A.M. Effect of solute concentration on the volume change and shear strength of compacted natural
expansive clay. Environ. Earth Sci. 2017, 76, 483. [CrossRef]
38. Al-Mahbashi, A.M.; Elkady, T.Y.; Al-Shamrani, M.A. Hysteresis soil-water characteristic curves of highly expansive clay. Eur. J.
Environ. Civ. Eng. 2018, 22, 1041–1059. [CrossRef]
39. Fredlund, D.G.; Xing, A. Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve. Can. Geotech. J. 1994, 31, 521–532. [CrossRef]
40. ASTM D4546; Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or Collapse of Cohesive Soils. ASTM International: West
Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2014.
41. Puppala, A.J.; Punthutaecha, K.; Vanapalli, S.K. Soil-water characteristic curves of stabilized expansive soils. J. Geotech. Geoenviron.
Eng. 2006, 6, 736–751. [CrossRef]
42. Al-Mahbashi, A.M.; Elkady, T.Y.; Alrefeai, T.O. Soil Water Characteristic Curve and Improvement in Lime Treated Expansive Soil.
Geomech. Eng. 2015, 8, 687–706. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.