Introduction

1 Basic concepts and models

1.1. Definition of projects

There are a number of definitions of project.
1) “A management environment that is created for the purpose of delivering one or more business
products according to a specified Business Case”;
2) “A temporary organisation that is needed to produce a unique and predefined outcome or result
at a specified time using predetermined resources”.
The notion "outcome" can be understood very broadly, it can mean, for example, a piece of computer
software or hardware, a methodology, a curriculum etc.
As the scope and type of projects is very broad there is no universal set of parameters or characteristics
of projects, neither unique set of procedures for project management. For example, if logistics (co-
ordination of project activities) plays important role in running big projects then it can be nearly
nonexistent in small projects. If, for example, software projects should have testing phase, then projects
in education not necessarily.
Nevertheless there is a number common attributes that are present in all projects and that actually form
the framework for projects:
1. Every project has a main objective or main objectives.
2. Every project is timely bounded, has either a fixed beginning and end or duration.
3. A structured system of activities and outcomes/milestones.
4. Every project needs certain recourses. Recourses can be divided into human recourses,
financial recourses, infrastructure etc.
Additional attributes can be considered, for example, the following:
5. The funding institution (or customer). The customer will usually determine the main features
of the project outcome and formulate the main requirements (for example, quality
requirements).
6. Every project is a unique undertaking and therefore has certain uncertainty and risks. Even if
the project team already did run a similar project before, meanwhile occurred changes in work
environment, technical and software tools, team composition or legal regulations cause some
uncertainty.
7. The contractor or coordinating institution.

Exercises.
1. Does boiling porridge soup qualify as a project? What could be the values of its attributes?
2. Can composition of master or PhD thesis be considered as a project?

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 3. Bring an example of a project-like undertaking that will not qualify as a project. What are the
main differences between projects and programmes?
4. Using web search bring an example of an unsuccessful project. What where the main reasons
for failing?

1.2. Life cycle of a project

The activities related to a project can be structured and grouped by the main aim of the activities and
groups of activities. These groups of activities are linearly ordered and are called stages. Normally the
life cycle of the project consists of the following stages:
• initiation
• planning
• execution
• closing.
Sometimes project monitoring is considered as the fifth stage. This stage has then a special status
because it is running in parallel to the other stages.
The division of stages into activities depends on the type and volume of the project. We list the
activities that are present in most of the projects (the main aim of the stage is indicated in the brackets).
Project initiation (determination of the main objective and forming a clear understanding about the
necessity and suitability of the project; this stage should answer the questions what? and why?):
1. Identification and initial analysis of the business needs.
2. Determination of the main objective(s).
3. Resource analysis (people, equipment, financial; needs and availability).
4. Composition of the project charter.
Project planning (determination of an optimal scheme/algorithm for project execution; this stage
should answer the question how?):
5. Needs analysis.
6. Description of the project (incl. determination of activities and necessary resources).
7. Composition of a project plan.
8. Planning and performing necessary PR-activities.
Project execution (achieving the project objectives without violating the constraints of the project):
9. Starting up the execution.
10. Day-to-day management.
11. Change management and reporting.
Closing the project (formal completion of the project and building solid bases for follow-up activities):
12. Product acceptance and implementation/application activities.
13. Composition of the final report and the Lessons Learned document.
14. Planning the follow-up activities (including PR activities).
15. Filing and archiving the project documentation.
There always are some activities related to the project that are performed after the project completion.
For example, the final auditing of the project, correction of errors or supporting the customers etc.
The division of the life-cycle of the project into stages gives an opportunity to break off the project
after the initiation and planning stages if it will turn out to be unreasonable to proceed with the project.
It would cause huge losses if the project will be cancelled in a more later phase. A project can have

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two or even more planning phases. If, for example, a project propsal was rejected, then based on
additional information (explanations/reports causing the rejection) the project plan should accordingly
be changed. Sometimes a successful project can in another context be repeated only with marginal
modifications.
We will discuss the stages and activities in a more detail in subsequent sections; here we point out the
most important aspects only.
Identification of the needs is extremely important as it determines in a great extent success of the
project including probability to be financed. The probability to be financed is the bigger the:
• more corresponds the project to the priorities of the donor/financing institution;
• bigger is advancement in relation to the solutions used before;
• bigger is the target group benefiting from the outcome of the project.
In identification of the needs is important to understand what are interests the decision makers. For
example, if a funding body declared PhD studies as a priority then it would be very risky to prepare a
project that asks support for development of a bachelor program. Having necessary resources but
wrong objective can result in nothing: a good bowman has a good bow but does not aim to a right
target..
Needs analysis should reveal the most important factor(s) the project should deal with. For example,
if the project aims to implement in schools ICT as teaching/learning tool then there could be different
solutions like:
1. Arrange continuing education courses for teachers.
2. Develop a web based support system for teachers for disseminating best practice cases.
3. Introduce in schools a new subject that would develop information handling skills of pupils.
4. Redesign curricula for initial teacher training.
5. Perform research aiming to develop a new educational paradigm.
Whether to choose one of these options or something else depends from a whole set of factors
(priorities, competence and recourses available, current and possible future trends etc). This is a tricky
problem: the problem is that what is “hot” at the moment could not be “hot” in the future (example:
usage of pocket calculators in schools in1970-ies!). It is even more difficult to recognize the future
needs (example: World wide web in the 1980-ies). If you will be competitive then you should look
ahead, should have a vision! Therefore the projects should be not only innovative but vision based as
well.
Determination of the main objective and resource analysis are usually performed hand by hand.
The main objective should be formulated very clearly and in measurable terms. The objective cannot
be “to analyse” or “to investigate” something. Analysis and investigations can just be tools for
achieving the project goal. Ambitious objectives can be reached by two or more projects. For example,
development of MSc Scholarship Program supported by a number of different bodies: Ministry of
Education, DKUT, UNDP, International Institutions.
Resource analysis and especially determination of partners should assure that the project will not
have big problems and that if facing difficulties the partners will support each other. For example, a
Laptop project co-ordinated by Ministry of Education was stopped by court because of very poor
management of the project from initiation.
The project charter serves primarily for composing project team and for obtaining acceptance for
project planning. The charter is a short (usually 1-2 pages) document that states the main objective, list
of the main activities and outcomes, necessary resources etc.

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Composition of a project plan is a good success indicator of the project. If the partners will correctly
and in time complete the tasks in the preparation process then it can be expected that the project will
be successful as well. A perfect project plan is another success indicator while a poor project plan can
be rejected even if the objective of the project is great.
PR-activities are necessary for
• Forming a public opinion towards the importance of the project,
• Convince potential donors that you are the best to perform the project.
For example, Bill Gates convinced the IBM leaders in 1979 that he can offer the best operating system
(MS DOS) for IBM personal computers.

Initial phase of the project execution will in a great extent determine the whole execution process,
will determine the devotion of project members etc. In this phase the support system for project
administration will be implemented; the partners agree on details for further activities. Bigger changes
in the project plan if needed should be made in initial phase as well because it would cost much more
if made in later phases.
Day-to-day management requires from project managers somehow different competences than
preparation of the project. For composing a project plan, analytical and conceptual thinking as well as
writing skills are needed while during project execution managerial skills are necessary. This is why
people responsible for composition of a project plan and for project management are in many cases
different, especially for big projects.
Change management is an issue importance of which has constantly been grown in last years. Over
the course of almost any project, the scope of the project changes. This can be the result of new
technologies, changes in legislation, shifts in user needs, impacts of third institutions etc. Because every
change has certain implications and costs, introduction of changes should explicitly be regulated.
Product acceptance and implementation measures the actual success of the project, not the formal
acceptance of the final report. This may sound trivial but is very often neglected. There is a huge
number of projects that were formally successful but that had almost no impact to the development of
the subject area for example kazi kwa vijana.
Project documentation serves the following two main purposes:
• Making them use in preparing and running the project as well follow-up activities and new
projects;
• Formal reporting and control.

Project life cycle may have different modifications. This may involve a three level decision making
process model 1) the idea will be elaborated and initial project will be made; 2) middle level
management decides whether it is worth to prepare a full project; 3) Starting bigger projects needs a
final decision by the board of EMT.
The project life cycles (stages and division of stages into activities) for different type of projects are
relatively similar. However, the product’s development life cycle depends heavily on the topic/subject
area. Moreover, for producing one and the same product different life cycle models can be used.

1.3. Definition of project management

Projects are implemented through project management. Project management is defined as application
of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to activities of the project for achievement the project
objectives/requirements.

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Project management should assure that the project outcome:
• Will be reached at a time,
• Will be reached with the resources of the project,
• Will have a predefined quality level.
Using for outcome and quality combined a generalized term scope we can build the Project
Management Triangle

Time Cost

Scope

Project Management Triangle visualizes the fact that time, cost and scope of a project are
interdependent; changing one of them causes changes in other two.
Project management can be considered as solving certain optimisation task: achieving in a certain time
frame the best possible outcome with limited amount of resources.
As a general project management methodology structural approach is most widely used. Structural
approach means that project activities are not based on concrete instructions but on certain structures
allowing finding optimal solutions that take into account individual characteristics and conditions of
the project.
There are four main sets of structures that are considered in relation to project management:
• Project management knowledge areas,
• Project management process groups,
• Project management activities,
• Project management artefacts.

1.3.1. Project management knowledge areas

The basic document that defines knowledge areas and process groups is A Guide to the Project
Management Body of Knowledge ([PMBOK Guide]). The guide became almost as a standard in project
management and determines in a great extent the content of courses and certificates in project
management. The guide defines and describes the following knowledge areas of project management:
1. Project integration management includes activities (called processes in the guide) that ensure
co-ordination of various elements of the project.
2. Project scope management includes activities that ensure completing all tasks (and only these!)
necessary for completing the project successfully.
3. Project time management includes activities that ensure timely completion of the project.
4. Project cost management includes activities that ensure completion of the project within the
approved budget.
5. Project quality management includes activities that ensure satisfaction of the needs for which
the project was undertaken.
6. Project human resource management includes activities that ensure the most effective usage
of people involved with the project.

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 7. Project communications management includes activities that ensure timely generation and
handling of adequate project information.
8. Project risk management includes activities that ensure adequate identification, analysis and
response to project risks.
9. Project procurement management includes activities that ensure acquiring necessary goods and
services from outside the performing organization.
These knowledge areas are applicable to all stages of the project, in fact during the whole life cycle of
the project. We will discuss knowledge areas in more detail later in this course. A systematic approach
how to develop competences of project managers in the knowledge areas (as well as personal
competences) is presented in Project Manager Competency Development Framework (PMCD
Framework).

1.3.2. Project management process groups

Project management is an integrative undertaking that deals with different type of activities. All
activities have certain common features: they should be initiated, planned, executed, controlled and
closed. These features are applicable for different levels starting from a single action up to the whole
project.
Initiating processes are processes that start the project, its each phase, activity or action. Even project
closing needs to be initiated: the activities should be started for convincing that the outcome satisfies
the needs of the customers, the necessary project documentation is present etc.
Planning processes are processes that are necessary for performing executing processes. Planning
processes include scope planning, activity definition and sequencing, schedule composition, resource
planning, cost estimation, budgeting etc.
Executing processes are processes that coordinate people and another resource to carry out the plan.
Controlling processes are monitoring and measuring processes ensuring that project objectives are met
and corrective actions are taken when necessary.
Closing processes are processes that lead a project or its phase to an orderly end.
The processes related to an undertaking can have in the time-scale smaller or bigger overlapping. In
general initiating processes are performed before planning processes, planning processes before
executing processes and executing processes before closing processes. Controlling processes usually
cover the whole time-scale of the undertaking.

1.3.3. Project management activities

Project management activities are activities that are in the responsibility of project manager and that
usually are performed (if not delegated) by the project manager. There is no fixed list or taxonomy of
project management activities. In the following we will list some of them:
1. Planning, organizing and coordinating the work of the project team.
2. Acquiring and allocation of human and other resources.
3. Controlling project execution, tracking and reporting progress.
4. Solving problems/conflicts both inside the project team as well with other parties.
5. Assessing and controlling risk.

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 6. Informing the project team and other parties involved about the state of the art of the project,
as well as about success and problems.
7. Create necessary work environment.
8. Encourage devotion, excitement and creativity inside the project team.
Probably the most systematic approach to project management activities is presented in Project
Management Maturity Model (PMMM).

1.3.4. Project management artefacts

Project managers should additionally to managerial competences be able to use and develop a number
of instruments and possess necessary techniques (including computing skills). Project management
artefacts are documents that regulate the project execution. Depending on the project size and type, the
list of necessary artefacts can vary, but most often the following artefacts are present:
1. Needs analysis and/or feasibility study.
2. Project charter.
3. Terms of reference/scope statement.
4. Work breakdown structure and/or project schedule.
5. Project management plan and/or responsibilities assignment document.
6. Communications plan.
7. Resource management plan.
8. Change control plan.
9. Risk management plan and/or table/database of risks.
10. Lessons learned document/database.
Taking into account that project management covers a broad range of competences and activities the
skills and knowledge necessary for project management are needed for everybody who should:
• Perform a task during a certain period of time;
• Deal with complex problems requiring solutions by activities that will run partly in parallel;
• Accomplish the tasks with limited resources;
• Co-operate in performing tasks with other people;
• Take into account the changing needs of the customers etc.

Exercises
1. What are the main differences between project management and general management?
2. Using web search engines and different keywords (for example project management careers,
information technology project management etc), find at least five interesting web sites
devoted to project management.
3. What are the most significant characteristics of an effective project managers? To what extent
these can be acquired/learned?
4. What kind of projects need more knowledge from the subject are and what kind of projects
less?

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1.4. Project managers competency development
After Project Management Institute developed a systematic approach to determine project management
knowledge areas (PMBOK Guide), the institute also developed a guidance for development project
managers competencies – Project Manager Competency Development Framework (PMCD
Framework). This is applicable to all project managers, regardless of the nature, type, size, or
complexity of projects.
PMCD Framework considers competences in three separate dimensions (denoted by K, P and B,
correspondingly):
1) Project Management Knowledge (what a project manager brings to a project through his
knowledge and understanding of project management);
2) Project Management Performance (what a project manager is able to demonstrate in his ability to
successful manage a project);
3) Personal Competency (the core personality characteristics underlying a person’s capability to do a
project, adopted from the Spencer Model).
The competences in each direction are structured as follows:
Units → clusters → elements → performance criteria → examples of assessment guidelines.
The project management knowledge/performance competences provide a basis for guidance to develop
the instruments required for development and assessing these competences.
For the knowledge and performance dimensions, the units correspond to the knowledge areas of
PMBOK Guide (numeric identifiers in brackets): integration management (1), scope management (2),
time management (3), cost management (4), quality management (5), human resources management
(6), communications management (7), risk management (8), procurement management (9); and the
clusters correspond to the project management process groups: initiating (1), planning (2), executing
(3), controlling (4), closing (5).
Each item has an identifier of the form -.#, -.#.#, -.#.#.# or -.#.#.#.#, starting with dimension character
and followed by one ore more numbers; for example, the identifier for knowledge (K) about executing
(3) project human resources management (6) is K.6.3).
For example, the elements of Initiating cluster of the Integration management unit are described by the
following table:
-.1 Unit of competence – Project Integration Management
-.1.1 Competency cluster – Initiating
Elements Performance criteria
-.1.1.1 Identify and document project needs .1 Determine product/service characteristics
developing project related product or using expert judgement as needed
service descriptions .2 Identify/document constraints and
assumptions.
-.1.1.2 Perform an initial project feasibility study .1 Utilize project selection methods/decision
and analysis models, including benefit measurement
methods and constrained optimisation
methods.
.2 Evaluate historical information for projects
involving similar products and services.
.3 Perform high-level assessment of the
organizational resources for the project.

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 -.1 Unit of competence – Project Integration Management
-.1.1 Competency cluster – Initiating
Elements Performance criteria
.4 Perform high-level assessment of the technical
and non-technical requirements of the project.
Examples of assessment guidelines
Knowledge competences:
Demonstrate a knowledge and understanding of:
• The inputs to project initiation.
• The tools and techniques utilized for initiating and appraising projects
• The outputs of project initiation.
Performance competences:
Demonstrate an ability to perform a:
• Needs requirement,
• Feasibility study/statement

For the personal competency dimension, the units and clusters are the following (identifiers in
brackets):
Achievement and Action (B.1)
• achievement orientation (B.1.1)
• concern for order, quality and accuracy (B.1.2)
• initiative (B.1.3)
• information seeking (B.1.4)
Helping and Human Service (B.2)
• customer service orientation (B.2.1)
• interpersonal understanding (B.2.2)
Impact and Influence (B.3)
• impact and influence (B.3.1)
• organizational awareness (B.3.2)
• relationship building (B.3.3)
Managerial (B.4)
• teamwork and cooperation (B.4.1)
• developing others (B.4.2)
• team leadership (B.4.3)
• directiveness: assertiveness and use of positional power (B.4.4)
Cognitive (B.5)
• analytical thinking (B.5.1)
• conceptual thinking (B.5.2)
Personal Effectiveness (B.6)
• self-control (B.6.1)
• self-confidence (B.6.2)
• flexibility (B.6.3)
• organizational commitment (B.6.4)

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For example, the elements of Achievement orientation cluster of the Achievement and Action unit are
described by the following table:

B.1 Unit of Competence – Achievement and Action

B.1.1. Competency cluster – achievement orientation
Achievement orientation is a concern for working well, or for competing against, a standard of excellence.
Element Performance criteria
B.1.1.1 Operates with intensity to achieve .1 Focuses on task(s) and standards of excellence
project goals set by relevant project stakeholders.
.2 Strives to do job well, reaching goals set by
project stakeholders.
.3 Controls project risk proactively.
.4 Sets high performance standards for self-
acting as a role model for team.
B.1.1.2 Motivates project stakeholders in a .1 Strives to ensure that expectations of all
positive way stakeholders are achieved.
.2 Drives increased effectiveness of the project
team and the way it does business.
B.1.1.3 Provides new solutions in planning and .1 Performs innovative actions to improve
delivering projects performance of the project team.
B.1.1.4 Operates with individual integrity and .1 Adheres to all legal requirements.
personal professionalism .2 Works within a recognized set of ethical
standards.
.3 Discloses to all stakeholders any possible
conflict of interest.
.4 Neither offers nor accepts inappropriate
payments or any other items for personal gain.
.5 Maintains and respects confidentiality of
sensitive information.

Before applying the PMCD Framework, organizations and project managers should determine the
overall relevance of the elements and performance criteria. Those elements from PMCD Framework
that are not applicable to their situations can be left out of their assessment. The general methodology
for achieving competences consists of five stages:
1) Determine applicable elements and performance criteria,
2) Determine desired levels of proficiency,
3) Assessment,
4) Addressing gaps in competence
5) Progression toward competence.
It is suggested that assessment results of competences should be documented by a competency
Summary scorecard and that determines for each cluster 1) areas with no gaps, 2) areas with marginal
gaps and 3) areas with significant gaps.

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