Class XII

Computer Science
Gist-07: Networking (FULL)
NETWORKING
A Computer Network is a collection interconnected autonomous computing device so as to exchange information or
share resources
▪ Advantage of Networks
• Share Resources – Printer, Scanner
• Share Storage – Share Files
• Share Software – Centrally Installed
• Improve Communication - Email
▪ Disadvantages of Networks
• Complex System requiring
• If Central Server Fails, System Fails
• File Security can be a Problem
Types of Networks:
Based on the Geographical Spread of the computers in the network we have the following categories:
▪ PAN (Personal Area Network)
Computer Network spread across the personal space of a person, like Bluetooth
▪ LAN (Local Area Network)
Small Computer Network confined to a localised area like a room, floor or building
▪ CAN (Campus Area Network)
Computer Network spread across a college campus
▪ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Computer Network spread across a metropolitan city like the Cable TV Network
▪ WAN (Wide Area Network)
Large Computer Network spread across countries and continents like the Internet
Difference between LAN and WAN

Types of Networks based on Component Roles

• Peer-to-Peer Networks (P2P Networks): Used for small computer networks typically with up to 10 computers.
Each computer can play the role of both a server and a client
• Client Server Network: Used for large computer networks with many computers. A dedicated server operates
solely as a server that serves the client computers
Network Topologies
Topology means geographical arrangement of computers in a network. The different LAN topologies are:
BUS Topology:
• Oldest network topology
• Computers connected to backbone cable (usually co-axial cable)
Advantage:
• Minimum cable length
• Easy to set-up
Disadvantage:
• Backbone cable-fault stops network operations
STAR Topology:
• Most common network topology
• Nodes connected to central node (server)
Advantage:
• Easy to set-up nodes
• Easy to detect fault & remove parts
Disadvantage:
• If central node fails, the network stops
RING Topology:
• Each node connected to form a closed loop
• Data flows through the ring using token
Advantage:
• Can handle high traffic
• Cheaper to expand
Disadvantage:
• A break in the main cable shuts down the network
• Addition/deletion of node disturbs network activity
MESH Topology
• Each node connected to more than one node
• This provides alternative route for data
Advantage:
• Robust network
• Alternative path in case a given path fails
Disadvantage:
• More cabling cost due to multiple routes
• Complexity increases with more computers
TREE Topology
• Combines technology for linear bus and star topology
• It is basically a group of star networks connected by a linear bus backbone

Advantage:
• Supported by various hardware and software vendors
Disadvantage:
• If backbone line breaks, network stops

Types of Cable or Wired Media used to connect Computers:

(FOC)
Types of Wireless Media:

Network Operating System

• A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that manages computer network resources
• It is essentially, an operating system that includes special functions for connecting multiple computers
Modes of Communications
• Simplex: When data travels in one direction only. Like Television broadcast communication
• Half Duplex Communication: When network communication can take place in both directions, but only in one
direction at any given time. Example walkie-talkie
• Full Duplex Communication: When network communication takes place in both directions, simultaneously.
Example phone communication
Some definitions related to Data Transmission
• Bandwidth: The maximum number of data bits that can be transmitted through a communication system per
sec. It is measured in bits per second or bps.
• Channel Capacity: The actual number of data bits that can be transmitted through a communication channel
per second
• Units of Data Transmission: The unit of data transmission in computer networking are bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps
Switching Techniques:
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks. There are 3 such techniques. These are:

Switching Description

Circuit • A physical connection or end-to-end path is established between two computers that are
Switching going to connect and transmit data
• After the connection is made the entire data is transmitted through the connection
• Example landline telephone network

Message • The source computer sends the message to the switching office first. This message has no
Switching upper-limit for its size
• The switching office stores data in a buffer memory and forwards it to next switching
office
• The process continues till the data is received by the destination computer

Packet • This type of switching takes place using fixed size message packets unlike message
Switching switching. The Internet functions using Packet Switching mechanism
• These data packets reside in the main memory of the computer
• Different packets can move through different network paths to reach destination
Network Devices
Network devices are the components used to connect different nodes (computers, networked printers, modem etc.)
in a network. The different Network Devices are:
Network Interface Card (NIC) or Network Interface Unit (NIU)
• It is a device used to interface a node (computer etc.) with the network
• Each NIC has a unique 48-bit physical address called MAC address (Media Access Control address)
• Communication in a LAN takes place using this MAC address of the sending and receiving nodes
Wi-Fi Card
• Wi-Fi card is an internal/external LAN adapter with a built-in wireless radio/antenna
• It helps nodes to connect to a network without a physical connection
Hub / Concentrator
• A Hub is a network device with no data filtering capability and used to connect the different
nodes in a LAN. Two types of hubs are:
o Active hub: These electrically amplify the signal from one node to other
o Passive hub: These allow signals to pass without any amplification
Repeater
• A repeater is a network device used to amplify signal when the signal travels over long distances
Bridge
• A bridge is used to connect two LAN segments in a network
• It has data filtering capability and selectively passes data between connected LAN segments
• The network bandwidth gets divided between the different nodes in a LAN segment
Switch
• A switch is used to segment a network into sub-networks to prevent overloading in a given network
• It has data filtering capability and only connects the two participating nodes
• It offers full bandwidth between participating nodes and hence much faster than a bridge
Router
• A router is a network device that forwards data from one network to another (i.e. different
LANs) based on the IP address (logical address) of a node
Gateway
• A gateway is a network device that is used to connect two dissimilar networks like a TCP/IP
network with an IBM’s SNA network
• It serves as an entrance to another network. For example, at home the gateway is the ISP
that connects the home computer to the Internet
Network Operating System
• A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that manages computer network resources
• It is essentially, an operating system that includes special functions for connecting multiple computers
Modes of Communications
• Simplex: When data travels in one direction only. Like Television broadcast communication
• Half Duplex Communication: When network communication can take place in both directions, but only in one
direction at any given time. Example walkie-talkie
• Full Duplex Communication: When network communication takes place in both directions, simultaneously.
Example phone communication
Some definitions related to Data Transmission
• Bandwidth: The maximum number of data bits that can be transmitted through a communication system per
sec. It is measured in bits per second or bps.
• Channel Capacity: The actual number of data bits that can be transmitted through a communication channel
per second
• Units of Data Transmission: The unit of data transmission in computer networking are bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps
Network Case Study
MyPace University is setting up its academic blocks at Naya Raipur and is planning to set up a network. The University
has 3 academic blocks and one Human Resource Center as shown in the diagram below. The university is having its
admission office in Delhi, which is more than 1250km from university.
Suggest the best network related solutions for the problems raised in questions 1 to 8, keeping in mind the distance
between the blocks and the number of computers present in each block as given in the tables below:

Technology

Business Law

HR

As per problem, the distance between the buildings and the number of computers in each building is shown below:

1. Suggest the most appropriate location for the server amongst the various blocks with proper reasoning.
As HR building has maximum computers, hence server to be placed there for efficiency as per 80-20 Rule
2. Suggest the best wired medium and draw the cable layout to efficiently connect the various blocks.
We can join the blocks using a star topology for maximum efficiency, by connecting as shown below. Or we
can use a bus topology layout with minimum cable length. UTP cables can be used for connection.
Maximum Efficiency Cable Layout Minimum Cable Length Layout

3. Suggest a hardware device to connect all the computers within each block.
A switch can be used for better performance to connect computers within a block.
4. Suggest the placement of a Repeater in the network with justification.
A repeater can be placed between HR & Law block, where distance is more than 100m using UTP cables.
5. Which hardware device will you suggest to be procured and installed to protect and control the Internet
access within the MyPace Campus?
A Firewall can be installed to protect and control the Internet access inside the MyPace complex.
6. The university is planning to connect its admission office in Delhi, which is more than 1250km from
university. Which type of network out of LAN, MAN, or WAN will be formed? Justify your answer.
As distances are large and between cities hence, WAN will be used.
7. What type of media do you suggest to connect the Delhi Office with the MyPace Campus?
As Delhi Office is 1250Km from MyPace Campus, hence radio link can be used with WAN technology.
8. If video conferencing or voice call is to be made between MyPace & Delhi Office, then how can you do it?
We can use VoIP to make video conferencing
Various Useful Protocols
Protocols
• These define rules that should be used for communicating in a network
• A protocol decides when a computer can transmit and receive data, how to make data-transfer reliable, how to
select the path for the data transfer etc.
• Different types of protocols are used for different network applications
Examples of various important protocols:
• Ethernet: It is the most important protocol used for communication in a LAN. It uses two types of schemes:
o CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) used for wired media
o CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) used for wireless media
• TCP / IP: Stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It is used for reliable transmission of data
in the Internet. Uses a handshaking mechanism to maintain reliability.
• UDP: Stands for User Datagram Protocol allows data to be sent without data acknowledgement scheme. Used
mainly for streaming data like streaming audio or video
• HTTP: Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Used for transferring web pages through the Internet.
• FTP: Stands for File Transfer Protocol. One of the oldest protocols. Used for transferring files from one system
to another across the Internet.
• POP3: Stands for Post Office Protocol version-3. The POP3 protocol is the standard protocol for receiving and
handling emails.
• IMAP: Stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It is used for accessing mails from different locations.
• SMTP: Stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is used for sending emails across the Internet.
• VoIP: Stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. It is a technology that allows voice communication over the
Internet, by compressing voice into data packets that can be efficiently transmitted over the Internet.
• Telnet: Stands for Tele Networking Protocol. It is used for remote login to have access to an external machine.
• SSL: Stands for Secure Socket Layer protocol. It is used for safely transferring data over the Internet with proper
data encryption.
• HTTPS: Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. Used for transferring web data through the Internet
securely with the help of SSL protocol.
• NFC: Stands for Near Field Communications protocol. It is used for short range wireless connectivity between
two electronic devices within a distance of 4 to 5 cm.
Addresses on the Internet
IP Address (Logical Address):
• IP address is a logical address (unlike MAC address) which is used to identify a device on the Internet
• Two main versions of IP addresses are IP4 and IP6
• An IP4 address is a unique 32-bit binary number divided into 4 octets, with each octet separated by a dot. It
is usually written in a dotted decimal format like: 192.168.45.123
DNS or Domain Name System:
• It is an alphanumeric naming system for servers in the Internet, which are easier for humans to remember
• Each domain name corresponds to an IP address. The process of obtaining the corresponding IP address
from a domain name is called Domain Name Resolution
o Examples of generic top-level domain names are .com (or .co), .org, .edu, .lib, .gov etc.
o Examples of country level domain names are .in, .fr, .jp, .ca, .us, .uk etc.
o Examples of full domain names are google.co.in, amazon.com etc.
Web Address or URL:
• URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is a scheme used to access a website on the Internet.
Example: https://google.co.in
• The first part of an URL indicates the protocol to be used to communicate with the server and the second
part of the URL after :// is used to indicate the server address from where the website is accessed.
• Generally, the domain name of the server (like google.co.in) is written for the server address
Cellular / Wireless Connectivity
Wireless networks are based on wireless connectivity protocols. The different generations of technologies are:
• 2G (Second Generation): Introduced in 1992. Also called GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication). It
allowed data along with calls in the form of text messages at 250Kbps. Used in pagers.
• 3G (Third Generation): Introduced in 2000, it provides speeds of up to 20Mbps. Can handle text and
multimedia along with voice calls.
• 4G (Fourth Generation): Introduced in 2013, it provides speeds of up to 50Mbps. Can handle text and
multimedia along with voice calls at high speeds.
• 5G (Fifth Generation): Introduced in 2019, it provides speeds of 500Mbps to 100Gbps. Can handle text and
multimedia along with voice calls at very high speeds.
• WLL: Wireless in Local Loop is a generic word for an access system that connects users to the local telephone
company’s switch via wireless links, rather than using the traditional copper cables. CDMA or Code Division
Multiple Access mechanism is used for implementing WLL
The Cloud and Cloud Computing
The Cloud is a generic term used for the Internet and Cloud Computing means Internet based computing. In this,
shared resources, software, and information are provided to computers through the Internet on demand. Different
types of clouds include:
▪ Private Cloud: Clouds for exclusive use by a single organisation
▪ Public Cloud: Clouds shared by multiple organisations which are non-related
▪ Community Cloud: Clouds for a group of related organisations who wish to use a common cloud environment
▪ Hybrid Clouds: When a single organisation uses both public and private clouds for a single application
Internet of Things (IoT)
It is a process that connects Smart Devices (Things) to the Internet over wired and wireless connections. It can be
used with home appliances, cars, factories, wearables etc. The different technologies used include:
▪ RFID (Radio Frequency Identification): Uses radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag called
RFID tag attached to an object
▪ Sensors: Used to detect changes in the environment based on a physical parameter like temperature, light,
pressure etc. and generate an electric signal
▪ Smart Technologies: Includes additional functionality to take action by processing data as per requirement.
Example, turning a device off / on from a smart phone
Basic Network Tools
• PING: Used to test the connectivity between two hosts. It determines if a remote machine can receive a test
packet and reply back. You have to use the domain name or IP address along with the PING command.
E.g. ping 192.168.23.54
• IPCONFIG: Used to display in detail the network you are connected to. It gives information like the DNS server,
MAC address and other helpful information.
• TRACERT: Used to get the number of hops and the response time to get to a remote system or website.
E.g. tracert cbse.nic.in
Errors in Communication:
Errors may occur while transmitting data over a network and data gets corrupted. Different techniques are used to
detect or rectify the error in communication. These include:
• Parity Bit Checking technique: This can be of two types:
o Even Parity Check: Here the sum of the 1-bits in the data, including the parity bit, should be even
o Odd Parity Check: Here the sum of the1-bits in the data, including the parity bit, should be odd
• Checksum technique: Here a calculation is done on the data bits and the result compared at the source and the
destination nodes to detect the error
Network Languages:
Term Description
HTML • Hyper Text Markup Language is the special language used to write documents for the web. This
language tells the browser how to display text, picture, audio, video and links. A special feature is
the use of hyperlinks to navigate to other documents

XML • eXtensible Markup Language is used for documents for the web that uses structured information.
It defines a standard way to add markup to documents.

Web • The process of creating an embedded script in a web page. A script is a list of commands that are
Scripting interpreted and executed by a certain program or scripting engine.
• Client-side scripts allows interaction within a web page like VBScript, JavaScript, PHP
• Server-side scripts allow completion of a task at the server’s end like ASP, Perl, JSP, PHP

Website and Web Hosting:

Term Description

website • It is a location on the web server with a unique URL. It is a collection of webpages.

web • The WWW is based upon client-server architecture. Hence a browser is a WWW client
browser machine/application that requests for data from a WWW server

web servers • It is a WWW server that responds to requests made by web browsers

web hosting • It is a means of hosting web-server applications on a computer system through which
electronic content on the Internet is readily available to any web-browser client.

Network Security
• Virus: Unwanted computer program that causes harm to your computer.
• Malware: Unwanted software that someone else wants to run on your computer, making your computer behave
in a way you do not want.
• Worm: A self-replicating program which eats up entire disk space or memory. It keeps creating copies of itself.
• Trojan: A program that appears harmless but actually performs malicious jobs like deleting/damaging files.
• Spyware: Software installed in your computer to spy on your activities.
• Adware: Programs that deliver unwanted ads to your computer and consume the network bandwidth.
• Spamming: To send unsolicited messages to large number of recipients for commercial advertising
• Phishing: Fraudulently trying to get sensitive information like username, password, account number etc using an
authentic looking email.
• Cookies: Small piece of data sent from a website and stored in user’s browser while a user is browsing the net.
• Eavesdropping: Unauthorised monitoring of other people’s communications.
• Antivirus: A software application program to detect and remove virus from a computer system.
• Firewall: A network security system (either hardware/software) that controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on a set of rules.
Some Full Forms: