Module in Facilitating Learning
MODULE 13. BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
Overview:
Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based
upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research
(especially Piaget). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference
focused on science and math learning.
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe the development of the child’s learning knowledge.
2. Explain how the spiral curriculum works.
Discussion:
Bruner (1966) was concerned with how knowledge is represented and organized
through different modes of thinking (or representation).
In his research on the cognitive development of children, Jerome Bruner
proposed three modes of representation:
1. Enactive representation (action-based)
2. Iconic representation (image-based)
3. Symbolic representation (language-based)
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new
material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this
holds true even for adult learners.
Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable
of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp
contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.
Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are
stored and encoded in memory.
Rather than neat age-related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation
are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.
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1. Enactive (0 - 1 year)
The first kind of memory. This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding
with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage). Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and
infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking).
It involves encoding physical action based information and storing it in our
memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might
remember the action of shaking a rattle.
This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a
bike.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt,
operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or
symbolic (word) form.
2. Iconic (1 - 6 years)
Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like
pictures in the mind. For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it.
This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to
have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information.
Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as
hearing, smell or touch.
3. Symbolic (7 years onwards)
This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or
symbol, such as language. This mode is acquired around six to seven years-old
(corresponding to Piaget’s concrete operational stage).
In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical
symbols, or in other symbol systems, such as music.
Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc. so
the user isn’t constrained by actions or images (which have a fixed relation to that which
they represent).
The Importance of Language
Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts.
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Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the
constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible
cognition.
The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and
can remove the constraints of the “here & now” concept. Bruner views the infant as an
intelligent & active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to
those of the mature adult.
Educational Implications
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to
learn). For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but
instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem-solving skills which can then be
transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic
thinking in children.
The Spiral Curriculum
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable
of understanding complex information:
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral
curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be
taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.
Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly
(hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching his way should lead to children being able
to solve problems by themselves.
Discovery Learning
Bruner (1961) proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this
by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that
the most effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told
by the teacher.
The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own
knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach).
The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but
instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design
lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits of information.
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To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without
organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery
learning.
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning”.
Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in
any way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the
experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general. Or of
learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural and personal factors
contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teacher’s and
parent’s influence on this. He believed that learning and problem solving
emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct
a child’s spontaneous explorations.
2. Structure of knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge
can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learners. Bruner
emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in
teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and
techniques. This will depend on different factors, and there will be many ways to
structure a body of knowledge and may preferences among learners. Bruner
offered considerable detail about structural knowledge.
1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more
comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in
the structuring of knowledge. Details are better retained when placed within
the context of an ordered and structured pattern.
2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental
principles or patterns are best suited.
3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject
area is diminished when instruction centers on a structure and principles of
orientation. This means that a body of knowledge must be in a form simple
enough for the learner to understand and it must be in a form recognizable to
the student’s experience.
3. Effective Sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general,
the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing or lack of it, can make
learning easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic
ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full
understanding and mastery.
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4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced
appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the
subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive
goals such as grades or class ranking.
Categorization:
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of
internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning,
decision making, and making inferences all involved categorization.
Bruner suggested a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical
arrangement of related categories. Each successively higher level of categories
becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Bloom's understanding of knowledge
acquisition as well as the related idea of instructional scaffolding (Bloom's Taxonomy).
Categories are "rules" that specify four thing about objects.
1. Criterial attributes - required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.
(Example, for an object to be included in the category "car" it must have an engine, 4
wheels, and be a possible means of transportation,
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assignees weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car
even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a
different category of "truck" or perhaps "van".
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely,
such as color. Others are fixed. For example, a vehicle without an engine is not a car.
Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in "car".
There a several kinds of categories:
1. Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes or features.
2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories. Equivalence can be
determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions,
functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, "car", "truck", "van" could all
be combined in an inclusive category called "motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria, for
example by science, law, or cultural agreement. For example, and apple is still an apple
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whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of
of a botanical classification group (formal).
3. Coding systems are categories serve to recognize sensory input. They are major
organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate
sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related
categories form a "coding system." These are hierarchical arrangements of related
categories.
Bruner's theories introduced the idea that people interpret the world largely in terms of
similarities and differences.
Exercise/Drills:
1. Recall a particular subject or topic that uses discovery learning and how it is used
in preschool, elementary and in high school levels.
Evaluation:
1. Explain how spiral curriculum works
2. Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge.
Please watch this video for additional information
[Link]
References:
Maria Rita, D. L. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process: Lorimar
Publishing
Brawner, D.G. (2018). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching. Adriana Publishing Co.
Inc.
McLeod, S. A. (2019, July 11). Bruner - learning theory in education. Simply
Psychology. [Link]
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