ENGINEERING SCIENCE

Engineering science is a multi-disciplinary field that combines/involves many different

scientific principles and mathematics with engineering applications to solve problems
and develop innovative solutions.
Engineering science acts as the bridge between basic scientific knowledge and
practical engineering applications. It emphasizes the integration of mathematical,
scientific, engineering and other disciplines to tackle the existing challenges and
advance the well-being of global society.

MECHANICAL FORCES
Force is an external agent that is applied on an object and can perform various effects
and changes on the object such as altering shape or size and affecting its movement
by decreasing speed, stopping the moving object or changing the direction.
Definition
A force is the amount of a push or pull that when exerted/applied on an object can
produce a movement of the object.
Therefore, when force is applied on an object can cause various effects and changes on
the object. Actions that can occur to an object when force is applied include the
following;

 Start motion or movement (pull or push)

 Stop motion or movement (rest)
 Change or alter the speed of the object.
 Change the direction of motion of the object

Force is a vector quantity and hence has both magnitude and direction.

Units and Measurement of force

The standard unit of force in the International System (SI) is the newton (N).
 1 newton is the force needed to accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1 m/s².
 1 N = 1kg x 1 m/s²
Force is divided into two main types, contact forces and non-contact forces.
Contact force:
Contact force is the force between two or more objects that are in direct physical
contact with each other.
Contact forces are subdivided into some types and these types of contact force include
the following-:
 Frictional Force – The resistance force that occurs when two surfaces or
objects move against each other. It is the force experienced by an object when it
moves or tries to move on a surface.
 Normal Force – It is the force that a surface exerts to objects to prevent solid
objects from passing through each other.
 Tension Force – The force that is produced with the help of rope, cable or
string. This force only pulls the suspended mass attached to it. It doesn’t have
the pushing ability.
 Applied Force – Applied force is the force that is exerted by one object on one
or more other objects. For example, a force applied by a person on other objects.
 Air resistance forces - Air resistance force is a type of frictional
force experienced by objects moving through air. Like normal friction, air
resistance is also resistive by nature. The power of this force depends on the
speed of the object as well as its surface area.
Examples:
 When you kick a ball, your foot applies a force to it, causing it to move.
 Pushing the door etc.
Non-contact forces
Non-contact forces are forces that act on an object without the need for physical
contact. This force doesn’t arise due to physical contact between the objects but acts
through the space between the objects.
Some of the examples of non-contact forces are as follows -:
 Gravitational force- The force that is present due to the attraction between the
two objects is defined as the gravitational force.
 Magnetism force- magnetic affinity of the molecules that generates this force
and results in binding of atoms and solids
 Electrostatic forces. Forces of charges object with either negative charges or
positive charges

Weight and mass

Many times, the term mass and weight are used to describe the same thing. However,
these two measurements are different.
Mass is a measure of the amount of materials in an object which is directly related to
the number and types of atoms present in the object. It is the fundamental property of
an object.
Weight is the force created when a mass is acted upon by a gravitational field pull or
push.

Differences between weight and mass

Weight Mass
It depends on the gravitation due to It is a constant quantity that does not
gravity change.
It is a vector quantity (have magnitude It is a scalar quantity (it has magnitude
and direction) only)
It is measured in Newtons (N) or Kgms2 It is measured in Kilograms (Kg)

FORCES IN SUPPORTED BEAMS

In structural engineering, beams are essential components that support loads and
distribute forces.
Beam
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to its axis. It
is designed to support and transfer loads from one point to another, often between
supports. Beams can be made from various materials, including wood, steel, and
concrete, and come in different shapes (e.g., I-beams, rectangular beams).
Types of supported Beams
Supports provide stability and transfer loads from the beam to the ground or other
structures. Common types of supports include:
1. Simply Supported Beam: . A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has
pinned support at one end and roller support at the other end. It can undergo
shearing and bending depending on the load applied. It is the one of the simplest
structural elements.
 2. Fixed Support: A support that prevents both translation and rotation at the
beam's end. It can resist bending moments and shear forces.

3. Cantilever Beam: A beam that is fixed at one end and free at the other. It can
resist moments and shear forces at the fixed end but has no support at the free
end.

4. Continuous support Beam: A beam that is supported at more than two points. It
can distribute loads across multiple supports, reducing bending moments and
shear forces.

5. Overhanging Beam: A beam that extends beyond its support(s) at one or both
ends. It can experience moments and shear forces at the overhanging sections.

Simply supported beam.

A simply supported beam is a basic type of beam used in structural engineering. It's
supported at both ends — one end usually rests on a pin (hinge) support, and the
other on a roller support. These supports allow the beam to react to loads without
creating a moment (i.e., they don’t resist rotation).
Forces acting on a simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam can experience several different types of forces, depending
on how it's loaded. Here's are the types of the forces that act on it:
a). Support Reactions
These are forces provided by the supports to keep the beam in equilibrium:
 Vertical Reaction Forces
Both supports push up against the load to balance it.
 Horizontal Reaction Force
Only at the pinned support (if there’s a horizontal force acting on the beam).
 No Moment Resistance
Simply supported beams allow rotation at supports — they don’t resist bending
moments at the supports.
b). External Loads (forces)
These are forces applied to the beam structure from outside:
 Point Load (Concentrated Load)
A single force applied at a specific point (e.g., a person standing in the middle of
a beam).
 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
Load spread evenly across a length of the beam (e.g., weight of flooring or snow
on a roof).
 Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)
Load that changes in intensity along the beam (e.g., triangular load from wind or
pressure).
 Moment (Couple)
A force that tries to rotate the beam around a point (less common, but sometimes
applied directly).
 Distributed load: A force spread over a length of the beam (like weight from a
floor or roof).
 Moment: A twisting force (not common in basic simply supported beams, but
possible).
c). Internal Forces
These are generated inside the beam in response to external loads:
 Shear forces: Shearing forces occur when a perpendicular force is applied to
static material (in this case a beam). It is the internal force that acts parallel to the
 cross-section of the beam. It results from external loads, reactions at supports,
and other forces acting on the beam.
 The shear force at a given section is the sum of vertical forces acting on either
side of that section. It is measured in units of force (e.g., N). These forces occur
along with numerous points of a beam, and it is important to determine where
these shears are at the greatest points as this may be where a beam fails.
 Bending moments: Forces that cause the beam to bend. Maximum moment
usually occurs under the load or at midspan.

Summary (Visualize it):

Imagine a wooden plank resting across two bricks. If you press down in the middle:
 The bricks push up (support reactions),
 The plank bends (bending moment),
 And parts of the plank want to slide relative to each other (shear force).

FORCES IN FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES

In engineering, a framework structure is a fundamental support system that forms the
skeleton of a building or other structure. It's essentially a network of interconnected
load-bearing members like beams, columns, trusses, and joists that distribute weight
evenly and provide stability.
Framework structures can be made from materials such as steel, concrete, or wood.
Understanding forces in framework structures is essential for designing safe and
resilient structures in architecture and engineering.
Types of Forces in Framework Structures
a) Compression force
Compression occurs when external forces act on an object or material in a
manner that pushes or squeezes it, causing it to contract or become
shorter in the direction of the applied force. This type of stress pushes the
particles or molecules within the material closer together.
b) Tension force
Tension occurs when two or more external pulling and
opposing forces act on an object or material in a manner that
stretches or elongates it, causing it to become longer in the
direction of the applied force. This type of stress involves
forces pulling the particles or molecules within the material
apart. A common real-world example of tension stress is a
rope or cable bearing a heavy load or a car towing another
car with a chain, where the material experiences tension forces that
attempt to elongate and ultimately weaken it.

c) Shear force
Shear force occurs when two pushing or pulling adjacent forces are
applied parallel to each other but in opposite directions, causing one
part of a material or structure to slide or deform relative to the other.
Unlike compression and tension, which act along the axis of an object,
shear forces act in a plane parallel to the surface of the material. Think
of it as trying to slide one layer of a material past another. Shear forces
are responsible for effects like cutting, tearing, or bending materials
without changing their overall shape or size.
d) Torsion force (Torque)
Torsional force occurs when you twist or turn an object. It is this twisting or
rotational force that makes things spin or rotate around an axis. This twisting force
causes the material in the object to experience both torque stress and shear force.
For example, when you turn a steering wheel, ride a bicycle, opening a jar, or use a
wrench to tighten a bolt, you're dealing with torque. Torque stress is like the internal
squeezing or twisting, while shear force is a sideways push within the
material. Understanding torque is crucial in various situations, whether it's designing
machinery, ensuring safety in vehicles, or even enjoying the simple
act of turning a key.

e) Moment (Bending forces)

In the context of structural engineering, the Moment is a section property used to
determine a structural element’s ability to resist bending and torsional forces.
Bending force occurs when external forces act on an object in
such a way that it causes a curving or bending deformation.
Bending forces are encountered in a wide range of applications,
from beams and bridges supporting heavy loads to everyday
objects like diving boards and springy floorboards. When an
object undergoes bending, it experiences both compression and
tension forces simultaneously.
The material on the compression side tries to resist being squished, while the
material on the tension side resists being pulled apart. Engineers and architects
carefully consider these forces when designing structures like bridges or beams to
ensure that materials used can withstand the resulting compression and tension
stresses effectively, preventing deformation or structural failure.

How Frameworks Handle Forces

Frameworks are designed to:
 Transfer loads efficiently (e.g., from roof to ground).
 Distribute forces through multiple members.
 Use triangles and bracing to resist deformation (triangles are very stable).
 Prevent buckling in compression members and snapping in tension ones.
The concepts of Moments
When a force acts on an object at a distance away from a pivot point, a turning effect is
caused. These turning effects are known as moments. Moments cause an object to
rotate about a pivot point. Understanding moments is crucial as their application is used
in daily life.
 Moment is a measure of the turning effect (torque) produced by a force acting on
an object such a beam.
 It is a measure of the tendency of a force to rotate or twist an object about a
specific point or axis.
 It is the measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to
rotate or twist.
Principle of moment
The principle of moment (Varignon’s Theorem) states that:

“The moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments
of the components forces about the same point”

Note: If an object is in equilibrium due to the action of upward and downward forces, the
algebraic sum of the moments caused by the forces about any point is equal to
zero.

Calculating Moments in simply supported beams

A moment can be calculated using the following equation:

Moment (M) = Force Applied (F) x Perpendicular distance (d)

or
M = F x d


Where,
M is the moment in Newton-metres (Nm)
F is the force in Newtons (N)
D is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the mass in metres (m):

Consider the diagram below;

5kN

A B C

d1 d2
d
2.5kN 2.5 kN

At equilibrium, the total forces acting on a beam are given as;

 Sum of reaction force (F) = Sum of Applied force (F)

 R1 + R2 = F1

Example: 1
Calculate the reaction forces at supports required to make the beam be at equilibrium,
shear force, bending moment and draw moment diagram for the simply supported beam
loaded as shown below.

6 kN

A B C

2m 2m
4m
R1 R2

Solution

(a) First, we find the reaction force R1 and R2

At equilibrium,
sum of upward force = sum of downward force

 R1 + R2 = 6 kN ………………………………

Also, at equilibrium at any point on the beam, MA = 0, MB = 0

(R2 x 4m) - (6 kN x 2m) =0
4mR2 - 12 kNm = 0
4mR2 = 12 kNm
R2 = 12 kNm/4m
R2 = 3 kN

Reaction force (R2) at point C = 3 kN

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Find reaction force R1 at point A

From equation ………………... 

RA + RB = 6 kN
R1 + 3kN = 6 kN
R1 = 6kN - 3kN
R1 = 3 kN

Reaction force (R1) at point A = 3kN

……………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Find shear force at point C, B and A

 Shear force at point C (S.F.C) = R2 at C

= 3 kN
 Shear force at point B (S.F.B) = Force at C - Force at B
= 3 kN – 6 kN
= - 3 kN

 Shear force at point A (S.F.A) = Force at C - Force at B + Force at A

= 3 kN – 6kN + 3kN
= 0 kN
……………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) Find bending moment at point B, C and A

Since the loaded beam is at equilibrium, bending moment at A and C is zero (0)
 Bending moment at point C (B.M.C)
= Force at point C x Distance
= 3kN x 0
= 0 kNm

 Bending moment at point B (B.M.B)

= (Force at C x distance AC) - (Force at B x Distance)
 = (3kN x 4) – (3 x 2)
= - 6 kNm

 Bending moment at point A (B.M.A)

= (Force at C x distance AC) - (Force at B x Distance) + Force at a x Distance)

= (3 x 4) – (6 x 2)
= 0 kNm
Example: 2
A simply supported beam AD has a pin support at location A and a roller support at
location D. The beam is loaded is loaded with a load of 3kN and 5kN respectively. Find
the reaction force R1 and R2, shear force, bending moments and draw the shear force
and bending moment diagrams.
3 kN 5 kN

A B C D

2m 6m 2m
10 m
R1 R2

(a) First, we find the reaction force R1 and R2

At equilibrium, the sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces

 R1 + R2 = 3kN + 5 kN

R1 + R2 = 8 kN ……………

At equilibrium sum of moments at point A and E is zero,

MA = 0, ME = 0,

Find moment at point A.

(R2 x 10m) - (5kN x 8m) - (3kN x 2m) =0

10R2 - 40kNm – 6kNm = 0
10R2 - 46kNm = 0
R2 = 46kNm / 10m
R2 = 4.6 kN
Reaction force (R2) at point D = 4.6kN
……………………………………………………………………………………………
From equation …….. 
R1 + R2 = 8 kN
Substitute the value of R2 to find value of R1
R1 + 4.6kN = 8kN
R1 = 8kN – 4.6 kN
R1 = 3.4 kN

Reaction force (R1) at point A = 3.4 kN

……………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Find shear force at point D, C, B and A

 Shear force at point D (S.F.D) = R2

= 4.6 kN

 Shear force at point C (S.F.C) = (F.D) - (F.C)

= 4.6kN – 5kN
= - 0.4 kN

 Shear force at point B (S.F.B) = (F.D) - (F.C) - (F.B)

= 4.6kN – 5kN - 3kN
= - 3.4 kN

 Shear force at point A (S.F.A) = (F.D) - (F.C) - (F.B) + (F.A)

= 4.6kN – 5kN - 3kN + 3.4
= 0 kN

……………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) Find bending moment at point D, C, B and A

At equilibrium sum of moments at point A and D is zero,
MA = 0, ME = 0,

 Bending moment at point D (B.M.D)

= F.C x distance at D
= 4.6 kN x 0
= 0 kNm
 Bending moment at point C (B.M.C)
= (F.C x distance CD)
= (4.6kN x 2m)
= 9.2 kNm

 Bending moment at point B (B.M.B)

= (F.D x distance BD) – (F.C x dist. BC)
= (4.6kN x 8m) – (5kN x 6m)
= 36.8 kNm – 30kNm
= 6.8 kNm

 Bending moment at point A (B.M.A)

= F.A x distance at A
= 3.4 x 0
= 0 kNm