TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 3

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

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TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS :
a) The study of traffic characteristics is the most essential prerequisite for any improvement of
traffic facilities. The traffic characteristics includes road users characteristics and
vehicularcharacteristics.

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b) The physical, mental and emotional characteristics of humanbeings are to be given
particular attention.
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`c)The vehicular characteristics includes study of various parameters of vehicles like
dimensions, weight, maximum turning radius, speed, braking system, lighting system, tyres,
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etc.
d) The Traffic characteristics are further classifiedas:
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(1) Road User Characteristics

(2) Vehicular Characteristics
(3) Road Characteristics
(4) Environmental Characteristics
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ROAD USER CHARACTERISTICS :


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Road user behavior is affected by both external and internalfactors.

 The internal factors can be classified as following.
(a) Physical factors
(b) Temporary factors
(c) Permanent factors
(d) Psychological factors
 The environment factors are consider as external factors
 The Physical Factors are further classified as : Permanent and TemporaryFactors
 Permanent factors include : Vision , Hearing, Strength, Judgment Power, Reactionpower
 Temporary factors include : Fatigue, Alcohol, drug, Illness, disability, Anger, Climate,
season, time.
 Permanent physical factor includes Visual activities of road users: Vision is one of the
important factors that affects almost all aspects of highway design & safety. The human
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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 3

eye is the sensory organ that enables one to see and evaluate the size, shape & color of
objects & estimate distances and speed of bodies.
The various aspects of human vision which affects the road user are:
VISION : The vision refers to the sight of human being. It depends on various factors such as:
1. VISUAL ACUITY (EYE SIGHT)
2. PERIPHERAL VISION: It deals with total visual field for the two eye. Angle of
peripheral vision, horizontal direction = 160 ˚, vertical direction = 115 ˚
3. EYE MOVEMENT
4. COLOR VISION : Under a good light many colors may differentiate but as light decreases,
some colors are less visible. Color blindness is a condition where one cannot distinguish
between differentcolors.
5. GLARE VISION AND RECOVERY : Adaptability to light is an important factor of
vision. Eye takes more time to adapt when we go from light to dark. Glare recovery time is

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the time required to recover from the effect of glare after the light source is passed.
6. PERCEPTION OF TIME AND SPACE : Perception of space refer to ability of eyes to
judge the space depth and time.
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HEARING: Hearing is an aid to the road-user which can at times be very vital. The sound of a
horn or the sound of the nearing vehicle itself can alert a pedestrian to safety.
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STRENGTH: Though strength is not an important factor in general, lack of strength may
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make parking maneuvers difficult, particularly for heavy vehicles.

REACTION TIME: The time required to perceive & understand the traffic situation & to take
the appropriate action is known as reaction time.
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JUDGMENT POWER: Ability to judge the coming situation depends upon experience &
one’s own judgment power. Before the actual response it is the right judgment of the steps to
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be taken to avoid the mishaps.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
a) Motivation
b) Intelligence
c) Learning
d) Emotion
e) Individual difference
f) PIEV time
MOTIVATION: People enter the traffic stream for business, social, recreation, marketing
purposes. They may be intent on going to a regular place of employment, to market, to rail, water,
air or otherterminals.

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INTELLIGENCE: The capacity of the road user to be aware of external factors pertinent to his
behavior in traffic and to adapt and adjust himself in accord with his intents and motives required
a fair degree ofintelligence.
LEARNING: The learning process, while dependent on motivation, intelligence, and other
modifying factors, develops the skills, habits and abilities of road users to respond properly to the
total environment of trafficoperations.
EMOTION: Usually emotion strongly motivates the road user to inefficient, random adjustment.
fear anger, worry, and other similar emotional states tend to create disorganized reaction
andbehavior.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE: Because of the modifying factors of motivation, intelligence,
learning and emotion there is a great variation among users of the highway.
ENVIRONMENT FACTORS
a) Traffic Stream Characteristics

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b) Facilities to the Traffic
c) Atmospheric Conditions
d) Locality, Land Use &Activities
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Vehicular Characteristics
Affect the design and Traffic performance. Vehicular characteristics consist of
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 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
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Static Characteristics
1. VEHICLE DIMENSIONS
a) Width: Affect width of traffic lanes, shoulders &parking facilities.
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b) Height: Affects the clearance of overhead structures.

 Clearance under over bridges, under bridges, electric& other service lines.
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 Height of driver seat – provide clear vision of the roadto his front & sides.
 Height of headlight -affects sight distances at valleycurves.
c) Length: Important factor in design of Horizontalalignment
 Length affects
 safe overtaking distance
 Capacity of road
 Extrawidening
 minimum turning radius
 Parking Facilities
 Design of valley curves.
2. WEIGHT: Affects design of pavement thickness &gradients.
 Limiting gradients are governed by weight & power of vehicles.
3. POWER: Power of heaviest and loaded weights vehicle govern permissible and limiting
gradients. Power affects the speed and acceleration of vehicle.

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4. MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS: Depends on length of wheel base and features of

steering system. Affects design of sharp curves.

Dynamic Characteristics
1. SPEED: it affects
 Sight distances
 Superelevation
 Length of transition curve
 Vertical curves
 Width of pavement and shoulders
 Design gradient
 Capacity of traffic lane
 Design of intersections.
Design speed controls most of the geometricfeatures of the highway.
2. ACCELERATION: Governed by Vehicle transmission system, weight and horse power.
 Maximum deceleration rate depends upon friction between tyres and pavement.
3. BRAKING CHARACTERISTICS: Important forsafety.

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 Affects Safety of vehicle operation ,stopping distance and thespacing between
two consecutive vehicles in a traffic steam
 Interaction between tyre & road surface governs braking performance.
 One of the prime causes of accidents during braking is the wheels getting locked and
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driver losing control of the vehicle.
PIEV THEORY :
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According to theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into 4 parts as:
PERCEPTION TIME: Perception time is the time required for the sensations received by the
eyes or ears to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord.
INTELLECTION TIME: It is the time required for understanding the situation. it is also the
time required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations.
EMOTION TIME: It is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as
fear, anger, etc. with reference to the situation.
VOLITION TIME: Volition time is the time taken for the final action. the “will” to take some
act or produce some action is volition.
The PIEV time of a driver depends on several factors suchas:
 Physical & psychological characteristics of the driver.
 Type of the problem involved.
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 Environmental conditions.
 Temporary factors.
The total reaction time (PIEV time) of an average driver may vary from 0.5 sec for simple
situation to as much as 3 to 4 sec for a more complex problem, such as the decision to overtake
and passon a two-lane road.

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Types of traffic engineering studies

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Traffic studies are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics. These studies help in deciding
Geometric design features, traffic control for safe and efficient traffic movement.The various
traffic studies generally carried out are
1. Traffic volume study
2. Speed study
3. Origin and destination study
4. Traffic flow characteristics
5. Traffic capacity study
6. Parking study
7. Accident study
Traffic volume study
Objectives and uses of traffic volume study
1. To deciding the priority for improvement and expansion
2. To plann traffic operation and control of existing facilities and also planning the new
facilities
3. It is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends
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4. Useful in structural design of payments

5. For safe operation and control of signals etc
6. The pedestrian volume studies is used for planning sidewalks, crosswalks and pedestrian signals

Methods of Traffic volume count

1. Manual method
Employs a field team to count and classify traffic volume. Number of observers required depends
upon number of lanes and type of information required. More desirable to record traffic in each
direction of travel by posting separate observers for each direction. For all - day counts, work in
three shifts of 8 hours can be arranged. Data is recorded by Five - dash system. Manual counts are
typically used for periods of less than a day. Normal intervals for a manual count are 5, 10, or 15
minutes. Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour and a Friday evening rush hour may
show exceptionally high volumes and are not normally used in analysis. Counts are usually
conducted on a Tuesday Wednesday or Thursday.
Advantages
 Details such as vehicle classification and number of acupunes can be obtained.
 Records turning moment data of vehicles at intersections.
 Analysing traffic characteristics in unusual conditions such as adverse weather conditions,

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traffic breakdowns, and temporary closure of any lane of Highway.
 Comparatively cheaper method of counting.
 It is often necessary to check the accuracy of automatic devices.
 Data accumulated by manual methods are easy to analyse.
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Disadvantages
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 Not practicable have to manual count for 24 hours of the day and throughout the year.
 Counts of remote areas are possible by automatic devices.
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2. Manual method

Speed studies
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Spot speed: It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.

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Average speed: It is the average of Spot speed of all vehicles passing at given points on the
highway.
Space mean speed: Average speed of vehicles in a certain road length at a given instant.

Where,
Vs = Space mean speed
n = Number of vehicles
Vi = Speed of the vehicles

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Time means speed: Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time or it is the
average of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.

Where,
Vt = Space mean speed
n = Number of vehicles
Vi = Speed of the vehicles

Running speed: It is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of road,
while the vehicle is in motion. This is obtained by dividing the distance covered by the time
during which the vehicle is actually in motion.
Journey speed or travel speed: It is the effective speed with which a vehicle traverses a
particular route between two terminals, it includes delay and stoppages.
Types of speed study

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1. Spot speed study
2. Speed and delay study
Uses of spot speed study
1. To use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulation.
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2. To use in Geometric design for redesigning the existing highway.
3. To use in accident studies.
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4. To study the effective capacity
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Methods of Spot Speed study

1. Direct timing procedure
Direct timing procedure is a simplest method. Two reference points are marked on the pavement
at a suitable distance apart and there will one observer at each point. When the vehicle enters the
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first reference point the observer will start stopwatch. When the vehicle cross second reference
point the second observer guide the first observer to put off the stopwatch. Knowing the time as
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well as distance the speed of that vehicle can be estimated

Disadvantages
1. There will be error due to paralax
2. The reaction time of two observers if they are not coordinating it leads to wrong value of
time and hence the speed.
3. If the reaction time of two observers is not coordinating with the surrounding environment
that is at peak hour and off peak hour again wrong value of speed is arrived.
4. Here observer has to stand in straight stretch where there is no visibility problem.

2. By using Enoscope
Enoscope is also known as mirror box. L shaped box open at both ends with a mirror set at 45˚
to the arms of the instrument.

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It bends the line of sight of the observer perpendicular to the path of vehicle.

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The instrument is placed directly opposite to the first reference point and the observer stations
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himself at the second reference point. Stop watch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first
point and is stopped as soon as it passes the observer. If two enoscope is used the observer
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stations himself midway between two reference points.
Advantages
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1. Eliminates parallel lacks error

2. Equipments of low cost, simple and can set up easily
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3. Radar speed metres

Works on the Doppler principle. Speed of a moving body is proportional to change in frequency
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between the radio wave transmitted to the moving body and the radio wave received back.
Instrument directly measures speed. Instrument is set up near the edge of carriageway at a height
of 1 metre. The speed metre is so kept that the angle between direction of travel of vehicle and
axis of transmission of radio wave is as low as possible, say with in 20˚. Speed of vehicles in both
directions can be observed.
4. Photographic method
Time - lapse camera photography can be used. Photographs are taken at fixed interval of time (say
1 second per frame) on a special camera. By projecting the film on a screen, the passage of any
vehicle can be traced with reference to time. Images by video cameras can we also used

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 3

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 3

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Speed and delay study

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The speed and delay studies give the running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuations in speeds and
the delay between two stations of a road. It gives the informations such as the amount, location,
duration and causes of delay in the traffic stream. The result of the spot and delay studies are
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useful in detecting the Spot of congestion. The delay or time lost traffic during the travel period
may be either due to fixed delays or operation delays. Fixed delay occurs primarily at
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intersections due to traffic signals and at level crossings. Operational delays are caused by the
interference of traffic movement, such as turning vehicles, parking vehicles, pedestrians etc.
Methods of speed and delay study
1. Floating car or riding check method.
2. Licence plate or vehicle number method.
3. Interview method
4. Elevated observations
5. Photographic technique
Floating car or riding check method
In the floating car method a test vehicle is driven over a given course of travel at approximately
the average speed of the stream, thus trying to float with the traffic stream. A number of test runs
are made along the study stretch and a group of observers record the various details. One observer
is seated in the floating car with two stop watches. One of the stop watch is used to record the
time at various control points like intersections, bridges or any other fixed points in each trip. The

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other stop watch is used to find the duration of the individual delays. The time, location and cause
of these delays are recorded by the second observer. The number of vehicle overtaking the test
vehicle and the overtaken by the test vehicle is noted in trip by 3rd observer. The number of
vehicles travelling in the opposite direction in each trip is noted by 4th observer. In this method
the detailed information is obtained concerning all phases of speed and delay including location,
duration and causes of delay.

Where,

=Average journey time in minutes

q = Flow of vehicle for (average volume) in one direction of the stream
na = Average number of vehicles counted in the direction of the stream when the test vehicle

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travels in the opposite directions
ny = Average number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the number of vehicles
overtaken when the test is in the direction of ‘q’
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Tw = Average journey time, in minutes when the test vehicle is travelling with the stream ‘q’
Ta = Average journey time, in minutes when test vehicle is running against the stream ‘q’
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License plate method

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It synchronised stop watchs or voice recording equipment are used. Observers are stationed at the
entrance and exit of a test section where information of travel time is required. The timings and
vehicle numbers are noted by the observer of the selected sample. From the office
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communications, travel time of each vehicle could be found. But the method does not give
important details such as causes of delays, duration and the number of delays within the test
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section.
Interview technique
The work can be completed in a short time by interviewing and and collecting details from the
road user spot. However the data collected may not provide with all details correctly.

Elevated observation and photographic technique

This is useful for studying short test section like intersection.

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Origin and destination study

The origin and destination study is carried out mainly to know the origin and destination of
various vehicles. In this study the data collected are number of vehicles, their origin and
destination, number of passengers in each vehicle, route etc.

Objective of origin and destination study

1. To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicles
2. To locate new proposal roads
3. To locate parking places
4. To locate expressway
5. To regulate movement of heavy vehicles
6. To locate new bridge as per traffic demands

Methods of O - D surveys
1. Roadside interview surveys

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2. Home - interview serveys
3. Post card questionnaire surveys
4. Registration number survey
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5. Tag survey
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Roadside interview survey
In this method interview stations are previously decised on the roadway. The
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vehicles are stopped at the interview stations by a group of persons and the answers
to prescribed questionnaire are collected on the spot.
Information collected
1. Place and time of origin
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2. Place and time of destination

3. Route
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4. Purpose of thetrip
5. Type of vehicles
6. Number of passengers in each vehicle
Advantages: Data is collected quickly in short duration.
Disadvantage: The vehicles are stop for interview and there is delay to the
vehicular movement.

Home interview survey

In this method random sample of 0.5 to 10% of the population is selected and the
residences are visited by the trained person who collects the travel data from each
member of the household. Detailed information regarding the trips made by the
members is obtained on the spot. The data collected may be useful either for
planning the road network and other roadway facilities
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Data collection
1. Number of trip made
2. Their origin and destination
3. Purpose of trip
4. Number of residents
5. Age
6. Vehicle ownership
7. Number of drivers
8. Family income
Advantages
1. The problem of stopping of vehicles and consequent difficulties are avoided
2. The present travel needs are clearly known and the analysis is also simple
3. Additional data including socio - economic and other details may be

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collected so as to be useful for forecasting traffic and transportation growth

Post card questionnaire surveys

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In this method replay - paid questionnaires are handed over to each of the drivers at
the survey points and requesting them to complete the information and return by
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post.
Advantage: This method is simpler and cheaper
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Disadvantage: Response may not a good

Registration number plate survey

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Registration number plate survey consists of noting the registration number of

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vehicles entering or leaving an area at survey points located on the corden line. By
matching the registration number of the vehicles at the point of entry and exit from
the area. One is enabled to identify two points on the paths of the vehicles.
Advantage: work does not interfere with the traffic in any way.
Disadvantages
1. Large number of observers is needed
2. Analysis of the results can be complicated

Tag survey
In this method at each point where the roads cross the corden line, vehicles are
stopped and a tag is affixed, usually under a wind screen wiper. The tags for
different survey stations have different shapes /colour to identify the survey station.

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The vehicles are stopped again at the exit points where the tags are removed. The
time of entering and leaving the area may be marked on the tag in order to enable
the journey time to be determined.
Advantage: This method is simple and errors are not very large
Disadvantage: It is not possible to handle all the vehicles, sampling may be restored
to done
Parking study
Introduction
Travelling vehicles at one time or another will need to park for short or long times.
Need for parking spaces is great in areas where land uses include (business,
residential or commercial). In high density areas spaces are very expensive, thus the
space provided for automobiles usually has to be divided between their movement
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Effects of parking
1. Congestion
2. Accidents
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3. Obstruction to fire fighting operations
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4. Effect on environment
Congestion: Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering of
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the road capacity. Hence, speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will also
subsequently increase. The operational cost of the vehicle increases leading to great
economical loss to the community.
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Accidents: Careless maneuvering of parking and unparking leads to accidents

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which are referred to as parking accidents. Common type of parking accidents occur
while driving out a car from the parking area, careless opening of the doors of
parked cars, and while bringing in the vehicle to the parking lot for parking.

Environmental pollution: They also cause pollution to the environment

because stopping and starting of vehicles while parking and unparking results in
noise and fumes. They also affect the aesthetic beauty of the buildings because cars
parked at every available space create a feeling that building rises from a plinth of
cars.

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Obstruction to fire fighting operations: Parked vehicles may obstruct the

movement of firefighting vehicles. Sometimes they block access to hydrants and
access to buildings.

Types of Parking

On street parking:
On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself.
This will be usually controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-
street parking are as listed below. This classification is based on the angle in which
the vehicles are parked with respect to the road alignment. As per IRC the standard
dimensions of a car is taken as 5 × 2.5 meters and that for a truck is 3.75 × 7.5
meters.

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Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road.
Here there is no backward movement involved while parking or unparking
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the vehicle. Hence, it is the most safest parking from the accident
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perspective.
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2. 30˚ parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30˚ with
respect to the road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can be parked
compared to parallel parking. Delay caused to the traffic is also minimum in
this type of parking.

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3. 45˚ parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles

can be parked. Hence compared to parallel parking and thirty degree
parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this type of
parking.

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4. 60˚ parking: The vehicles are parked at 60˚ to the direction of road. More
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number of vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type.
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5. Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90˚ parking, the vehicles are
parked perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it consumes
maximum width kerb length required is very little. In this type of parking, the
vehicles need complex maneuvering and this may cause severe accidents.
This arrangement causes obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road
width less.

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Off street parking: In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted
for parking which will be at some distance away from the main stream of traffic.
Such a parking is referled to as off-street parking.

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ACCIDENT STUDIES
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Road accident cannot be totally prevented, but by suitable traffic engineering and
management measures, the accident rate can be decreased considerably.
Objectives of the accident studies

1. To study the causes of accident and to suggest corrective treatment at

potential location
2. To evaluate the existing
3. To support proposed design
4. To carry out studies before and after for improvement
5. To make financial computations and to give economic justifications for the
improvements suggested by the traffic engineer

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Causes of road accidents

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules,
failure to per-ceive traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time,
carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep etc.
2. Vehicle Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst, and
lighting system.
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance,
inadequate width of shoulders, improper curve design, and improper traffic
control devices and improper lighting.
5. Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow,
smoke and heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes
driving unsafe.

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6. Other causes-improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level
crossing not closed when required etc.
Collision diagram: These diagrams depict the details of the accident locz (not
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drawn to scale) and show the approximate path of the vehicles pedestrians involved
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in the accident and also other objects with which vehicles have collided. Collision
diagrams are most useful to compare the accident pattern before and after the
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remedial measures have been taken typical collision diagram and symbols used are
shown in Figure below.
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Condition diagram: A condition diagram is a drawing of the accident location

drawn to a scale, showing all the important physical features of the road adjoining
area. The important features generally to be shown in the condition diagram with
their dimensions marked there-in are: the width of roadway, shouklders, median if
any other geometric details such as curves, kerb lines, bridges, culverts, electric
posts, trees and all details of roadway conditions, obstruction to vision, property
lines, signs, signals, etc. Standard symbols are used in showing various details.

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Measures for Reduction in Accident Rate

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Education
Enforcement
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Engineering
Engineering Measures
 Design Road
 Preventive measures of vehicles
 Before and after studies
 Road lighting

Enforcement Measures
 Speed control
 Traffic control devices
 Training and supervision
 Medical check

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 Special precaution for commercial vehicles

 observance of law and regulation
Educational MEASURES
 Education to road users
 Safety drive

Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

It is a common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit
to convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called Passenger Car Unit or
PCU.
Thus in mixed traffic flow, the traffic volume and the capacity are generally
expressed as PCU per hour or PCU / lane / hour and the traffic density as PCU per
kilometer length of lane.

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Factors affecting PCU

1. Vehicle characteristics.
2. Speed distribution of the mixed traffic stream, volume to capacity ratio.
3. Roadway characteristics.
4. Regulation and control of traffic.
5. Environmental and climatic conditions

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