Science notes

Term 1
Variables

-Independent variables: the variable that is changed

-Dependent variable: the variable that might change and is what is measured

-Controlled variables: any other variables that might affect the results. Is being controlled.

Hypothesis Help

-A hypothesis tells you what your variables are.

E.G

-If more coffee is consumed, then the subject will sleep less.

IV: amount of coffee consumed.

DV: the amount of sleep.

EXPIREMENT

Does red light affect plant growth?

IV: the red light ✅

DV: the plant growth – height, weight ✅

CV: light exposure, power of the light, amount of water, space, soil

Practice

If the concentration of detergent is increased, then the bubbles will be larger.

IV: Concentration of detergent

DV: The size of bubbles

CV: the brand of detergent, brand of bubbles, washing machine.

If more protein is consumed, then hair will grow faster.

IV: the amount of protein consumed

DV: the speed of hair growth

CV: brand of protein,

Milk.

IV: the milk

DV: the mass of solid material found in the milk after 10 days.
CV: the brand of oven, fridge, cupboard, the cup, the temperature

Chemistry

Smallest form -> atom

Atoms

Proton – Positive charge

Neutron- neutral charge

Electrons – negative charge

-Protons and neutrons are tightly packed in the nucleus (large mass)

-The electrons float around the outside (very small mass)

Analogy

If an atom is the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be the size of a small marble.

If protons and neutrons had a mass around that of a baseball, the mass of an electron would be that
of a single grain of rice.

DYK

-The human body is made up of 16 elements but 98% of the body is only made up of 6!

TERMINOLOGY

-an element is a pure substance is made up of 1 type of atom

-Chemically bonded

-all identical single particles

-can also be molecules of the same atoms

-A molecule is 2 or more atoms joined together

Atomic Number (number of protons)

Atomic symbol

Atomic name

Mass number (Protons +neutrons)

The number of the electrons is the same as the number of protons

The periodic table

-Group elements with similar properties

-Each horizontal row is called a period (numbered 1 -7)

-each vertical column is called a group (numbered 1 – 8)

-Elements in a group are all different but they look alike and behave similar

EXAMPLE: sodium is in group 1 and burn brightly in air potassium in group 1 is expected to behave in
the same way

Metals vs non-metals

-the elements fall into two main groups | metals and Non – metals

-towards the right of the periodic table, the elements are non – metals, for example carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine

-plus hydrogen

-the other elements (about 80% of them) are metals

Metals

-Usually shiny or can be polished to make them shiny

-Are solid at room temperature, except mercury (liquid)

Non metals

-Sulphur

-carbon

-Tend to be dull not shiny

-tend to be solid or gas at room temperature (except bromine is liquid)

-breaks and crumbles when bent (brittle)

-Does not conduct heat or electricity

-Does not react with acid

Metalloids
-They have physical properties of both metals and non metals and can be hard to classify

-some shiny, some dull

-They are somewhat malleable and ductile

-Conduct heat and electricity at a lesser level then metals

Chemical Changes

-can happen on very large scales such as huge explosions

-also on a smaller scale – chemical changes happen in your body

-Happens in your mouth to break down food

-From the use of fire to the latest scientific research, humans have learnt to use chemical changes
and to create their own Do you know again?

Physical Changes

-The substance keeps its original properties

-Physical changes can include changes of state such as melting and evaporation or other changes
such as crushing or stretching

-When water changes from solid to liquid to gas, this is a physical change

-All 3 states of water still consist of molecules of water

What is an element?

An element is found on the periodic Table.

It is made up of one type of atom.

It is a pure substance and is chemically bonded.

A molecule is when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together. If they are made up of the
same element, e.g.: O2, then we can call it a molecule.

What is a compound?

A compound is a pure substance made from two or more different elements that have reacted
chemically with each other.

They are chemically bonded which means the elements cannot be separated by physical means.

Since a molecule is when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together and a compound is
made from different elements bonded together and a compound is made from different elements
bonded together, all compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.

How can we use it if sodium explodes in water.

The sodium in our salt is actually a compound.

Sodium and chloride atoms joined together.

Sodium is a soft silvery white metal that reacts readily with many other elements.

Chlorine is a greenish-yellow poisonous gas with a choking irritating smell.

When you mix sodium and chlorine, a compound is formed with properties that are very different
from those of sodium or chlorine. It is called sodium chloride or table salt, which we add to our food.

Types of mixture

HOMOGENEOUS

-A mixture of different particles (compound and elements) that are not chemically bonded but are
same throughout the mixture (e.g. cordial, beach water) – evenly distributed
HETEROGENEOUS

-A mixture of different particles (compound and elements) that are not chemically bonded and are
not same throughout (e.g. oil and water, m&m’s) -not evenly distributed

Writing formulas

-when we look at element symbols, they are one or two letters

-if the element name is made up of ONE letter, the letter is always UPPERCASE

-if the element name is made up of TWO letters, the FIRST letter is always UPPERCASE, the SECOND
latter is always LOWERCASE

-in compounds, each capital letter means it is a new element – NH3 means one nitrogen and three
Hydrogen atoms

Term 2
TYPES OF ENERGY

Energy
-Energy is all around you

-you can hear energy as sound, light, wind, heat

-Living organisms need energy for growth and movement

-All movement uses energy

Energy in action

Kinetic energy

-Kinetic energy = anything moving

-the faster an object moves, the more kinetic energy it has.

-more mass of moving object = more kinetic energy

-depends on mass and velocity

Light energy

-burning chemicals, hot objects, stars release light energy. So does anything that glows

-travels through space in waves

-travels through a vacuum (no air or molecules)

-comes from the sun, is called solar energy and is used by plants in photosynthesis for food

Sound energy

-is a form of kinetic energy

-caused by vibrating objects- guitar strings

-travels as waves through solid, liquid or gases

-can’t travel through space cuz there aint no air = no particles for the sound to be carried on = no
sound.

-bigger vibration = bigger sound

Heat energy

-energy that an object has because of its temperature

-hotter object = more heat energy

-moves from a hotter object to a colder one

Electric energy

-widely used cuz its easy to be transferred using wires

-can be changed into other forms of energy using technology or devices.

Stored energy

-Called potential energy cuz it’s not making anything happen but it has the potential to do so.
Chemical energy

-can be stored in chemicals

-released by a chemical reaction

-Has the potential to be converted to produce movement or do work

Nuclear energy

-stored inside atoms as nuclear energy

-involves the reaction at the centre of the atom

-can be released from SOME atoms in nuclear power stations

-nuclear energy stored in hydrogen atoms is the source of the sun’s energy.

Elastic energy

-energy that is stored due to being stretched or compressed

-More stretched = more energy

-When you jump on a trampoline, the springs attached to the mat are pushed down and stretch

Gravitational energy

- Gravitational potential energy is the potential energy that an object has because of its height and
mass.

• The higher an object is, the more gravitational potential it has.

• The more mass an object has, the more gravitational potential energy it has.

-When you are at the top of a roller-coaster ride, you have a lot of gravitational potential energy but
not much kinetic energy.

As you come down again, the gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, so the
cart gets faster and faster. At the bottom of the ride, you have much more kinetic energy but much
less gravitational potential energy

-If you stand on a 3-metre diving board, you have 3 times the GPE than you had on a 1-metre diving
board

-“The bigger they are the harder they fall” is not just a saying – objects with more mass have greater
GPE

-The formula for GPE is: GPE = mass x height

1.chemical

2. heat

3. light
4.gravitational

5.chemical

6.electric

7.heat

8.elastic

KE = ½ mv2 (2 is an exponent.)

Ke = kinetic energy

M = mass of object (kg)

V = velocity (speed) of object (m/s)

E.G:

If an orange weighing 0.4kg at a velocity of 12 m/s, how much kinetic energy would it have?
KE = 0.5 x m x v2

KE = 0.5 x 0.4 x 12 2 (2 is an exponent.)

KE = 0.5 x 0.4 x 144

KE = 28 . 8 J

*Answer in sentences
The orange has 28.8J of energy when travelling at 12m/s.

GPE = mgh

GPE= Gravitational Potential Energy

m = mass of object (kg)

g = gravitational acceleration on earth – 9.8m/s2

h = height of an object from sea level (m)

E.G:
If an orange weighing 0.4kg at a velocity of 12 m/s, how much kinetic energy would it have?
GPE = m x g x h

GPE = 0.4 x 9.8 x 12

GPE = 47.04 J

The orange has 47.04J of potential energy when stored at 12m high.

STEPS

KE =

1. Write the equation in the correct format.

2. Square the velocity.
 3. Multiply everything together.
4. Write the answer in a sentence.
MPE =

1. write the equation in the correct format

2. then multiply everything together to find the answer in Joules

3. write the answer in a sentence

CONVERSIONS:

÷ 3.6

--------------

Khm/hr ------------- ms/s

X 3.6

X1000

--------------

KJ ---------------- J

÷1000

KE = 0.5 x 78 x 2.78 2

KE = 0.5 x 78 x

Biology (cells)
The cell theory

-Many scientists contributed to what we know about cells.

1. All living things are made up of one or more cells

2. Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things

3. All new cells come from pre-existing cells

FF: Your liver can grow 40% of it back when it’s lost.

Cells

-There are many different types of cells

-the size, shape, structure, and contents of a cell are specific to its function

-cells contain organelles that are similar to the organs in your body. (Each organelle has a specific job
to do)
-Plant and animal cells can be distinguished based on the organelles they contain.

E.g of specialised cells include:

Muscle cells, epidermal cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, sex cells, stomatal guard cells, nerve
cells, skin cells, brain cells, root hair cells

Unicellular or Multicellular

-Some organisms consist of only a single cell – UNICELLULAR

e.g.: bacteria and protists

-Most organisms consist of more than one cell – MULTICELLULAR

E.g. humans, animals and plants

Animal cells

-If big enough to hold in your hand, it would probably feel like a clear balloon filled with water or jelly

-You would see tiny things inside the cell usually only visible with a microscope

animals’ cell

-Cell membrane

-nucleus

-vacuole

-cytoplasm

-mitochondria

-ribosomes

-endoplasmic reticulum

-Golgi body

Cell membrane – Security

-double layered membrane

-keeps everything inside the cell

-controls what substances move in and out the cell

Nucleus – control centre

-most obvious structure in the cell

The ‘brain’ of the cell

Where the DNA is

Controls how the cell develops and reproduces.

Usually only 1 per cell (liver -2 nucleus)

Surrounded by nuclear envelope.

Vacuole – Storage

-Many very small structures in an animal cell

-fluid filled bags withing a cell where excess water, wastes and chemicals are stored.

Cytoplasm

-Watery, jelly-like mixture that contains many smaller parts of the cell- organelles

-organelles: smaller parts in the cell which all have special functions

Mitochondria – the powerhouse

-Makes energy for the cell by respiration

-double membrane

-number depends on energy requirements but can range from 0 to 1000s

-red blood cells have ZERO

-Muscle and liver cells hundred to thousands

Ribosomes

-Where proteins are made that the body needs for growth and repair.

Endoplasmic Reticulum – Factory

-Collection of membranes that run throughout the cell and move materials around

-There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

-no ribosomes

-makes fat

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum

-Ribosomes (bumps) attached

-where proteins are made

Golgi Body – post office

-short stacks of flattened sacks – pancakes

-received packaged proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum

-then sen the proteins to the right pace in or out of the cell

Plant cells

-Cell membrane

-nucleus
-vacuole

-cytoplasm

-mitochondria

-ribosomes

-endoplasmic reticulum

-Golgi body

-cell wall

-chloroplast

Cell wall

-Tough rigid structure that surrounds a plant cell and supports it and helps plant stand upright

-located outside the cell membrane

-has holes in it so substances can move in and out of the cell

DYK: the cell wall is so ‘chemically tough’ that animals can’t digest them without help. The bacteria in
the stomach of cows and other plant eating animals digest cell wall. Humans chew and crush the
plant cells which releases the contents. Cell wall remains undigested and is fibre.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chloroplast – Solar panels

-Double membrane

-contains a p

Vacuole

-large (up to 80% of the cell)

-filled with sap and stores water, nutrients, and wastes

-like a large water balloon (pushes against the cell and gives the cell with support and holds its shape

DYK: about 50 trillion cells in your body, different shapes, structures and function

Multicellular Organisms

-made up of many different types of cells (carry out specialised functions for survival)

-need a constant supply of energy

-animals cells get energy from food, plant cells get energy from sunlight

-energy is gained by cells using chemical reactions

Diffusion

-substances such as gas, move from an area of high concentrate to an area of low concentration
-E.g) when you spray perfume at the front of the room, eventually people at the back of the room
will smell it

-substances move into and out of cell in a very similar way, by passing through the cell membrane
from high concentration to a low concentration with no energy required.

-food and oxygen diffuse into the cell, and wastes, such as excess water, diffuse out of the cell

Glucose & cell energy

-without a continuous supply of energy, cells can’t perform important functions, and they die.

-the only type of energy that cells can use is chemical energy

-A major source of chemical energy for multicellular organisms is obtained by breaking the bonds of
glucose, a type of sugar molecule.

-the chemical energy is stored in the bonds of glucose molecules and is released when the bonds are
broken.

-Animals get most of their glucose from their food, whereas plants convert energy from the sun

Respiration – Aerobic & anaerobic

-To release energy from glucose and other energy-rich molecules, all living cells se the chemical
process of respiration

-cells can carry out two main forms of respiration: Aerobic respiration = with oxygen, Anaerobic
respiration = without oxygen

-Aerobic respiration provides multicellular organisms with most of their energy

-it takes place mostly in cell organelles called mitochondria, the “powerhouse” of the cell.

-The number of mitochondria in a cell is usually related to the functions of the cell e.g muscle cells
have several thousand mitochondria.

Aerobic respiration Equation

Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water +energy (GOCWE)

-In animals, glucose is obtained from food and oxygen is taken in from the environment across
special surfaces such as lungs or gills

-both substances move into the blood and then to the cells

-plants absorb most of their oxygen they use through their leaves.

-In all living cells, the chemical energy produced during respiration is transported to the parts of the
cell that need it, while the carbon dioxide and water are removed from the cell

Photosynthesis

-plants rely on photosynthesis to make their own food, using light energy, water and carbon dioxide

-one of the main reasons they are able to do this is because their cells have specialised structure
called chloroplast
-chloroplasts contains chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs light energy

Chemical equation for photosynthesis

Water + carbon dioxide (+light) -> plant _> glucose + oxygen

-to fuel photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll within a plant’s cells

-this energy is then used to change water (absorbed through the roots) and carbon dioxide
(absorbed from the surrounding air or water) into oxygen and glucose

-The glucose produced from this reaction is either used in respiration or stored for later use

-the oxygen moves into the environment through special pores (openings) in the leaves called
stomata, or it is used during respiration