CHAPTER 2

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Since the dawn of civilization, there have been many attempts to classify
living organisms.
 It was done instinctively not using criteria that were scientific but borne out
of a need to use organisms for our own use – for food, shelter and
clothing.
 Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for
classification.
 He used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees,
shrubs and herbs.
 He also divided animals into two groups, those which had red blood
(Enaima) and those that did not (Anaima).
 Artificial system of classification – It was based on few morphological
characters and androecium structure, given by Carolus Linnaeus.
 Natural system of classification – It was based on complete morphological
characters and was given by Bentham & Hooker.
 Phylogenetic system of classification – It was based on evolutionary
relationship among the organisms. It was given by Engler & Prantil.
 Two kingdom system of classification – It was given by Carolus Linnaeus
(1758), and divided whole living world into Kingdom plantae & Animalia.
 This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes,
unicellular and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green
algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.
 Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and
was easy to understand, but, a large number of organisms did not fall into
either category. Hence the two kingdom classification used for a long time
was found inadequate.
 Besides, gross morphology a need was also felt for including other
characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition,
habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc.
Classification systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone
several changes over the time.
 Though plant and animal kingdoms have been a constant under all different
systems, the understanding of what groups/organisms be included under
these kingdoms have been changing; the number and nature of other
kingdoms have also been understood differently by different scientists
over the time.
  Three kingdom systems of classification – It was given by Ernst Haeckel
(1866) and it comprises kingdom Protista, Plantae & Animalia.
 Four kingdom systems of classification – It was given by Copeland
(1956) and it comprises kingdom Monera, Protista, Plantae, Animalia.
 Five Kingdom systems of classification – R.H. Whittaker (1969)
proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him
were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
 The main criteria for classification used by him include-
 Cell structure.
 Body organization.
 Mode of nutrition.
 Reproduction.
 Phylogenetic relationships.
Note: Most important criteria among all is mode of nutrition.

TABLE 2.1
 Note: Members of kingdom monera have most metabolic diversity.
Three Domain Of Life –
 The three-domain system (Given by Carl woose in 1977) has also been
proposed that divides the Kingdom Monera into two domains (Domain
archaea, Domain bacteria), leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms
(Domain eukarya) in the third domain and thereby a six kingdom
classification. You will learn about this system in detail at higher classes.
  Domain eukarya has four kingdoms.
 Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi,
mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms under ‘Plants’.
 The character that unified this whole kingdom was that all the organisms
included had a cell wall in their cells.
 This placed together groups which widely differed in other characteristics.
 It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae
(cyanobacteria) with other groups which were eukaryotic.
 It also grouped together the unicellular organisms and the multicellular
ones, say, for example, Chlamydomonas (Unicellular) and Spirogyra
(Multicellular) were placed together under algae.
 The classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic group –
fungi, and the autotrophic green plants, though they also showed a
characteristic difference in their walls composition – the fungi had chitin in
their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell wall.
 When such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a
separate kingdom – Kingdom Fungi.
 All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom
Monera
 All the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were placed in Kingdom
Protista.
 Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier
placed in Algae within Plants and both having cell walls) with
Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were earlier placed in the animal
kingdom which lack cell wall).
 It has put together organisms which, in earlier classifications, were
placed in different kingdoms.
 This happened because the criteria for classification changed.
 This kind of changes will take place in future too depending on the
improvement in our understanding of characteristics and evolutionary
relationships.
 Over time, an attempt has been made to evolve a classification system
which reflects not only the morphological, physiological and reproductive
similarities, but is also phylogenetic, i.e., is based on evolutionary
relationships.
 In this chapter we will study characteristics of Kingdoms Monera, Protista
and Fungi of the Whittaker system of classification.
2.1 kingdom monera –
 Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
  They are the most abundant micro-organisms.
 Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
 Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.
 They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and
deep oceans where very few other life forms can survive.
 Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites.

FIGURE-2.1
 Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape:
 Coccus-The spherical shaped bacteria called Coccus (pl.: cocci).
 Chain of spherical shaped bacteria called streptococcus.
 Bunch of spherical shaped bacteria like grapes called staphylococcus.
 Group of bacteria making cube shaped structure called sarcina.
 Bacillus- The rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli)
 Vibrium-The comma-shaped Vibrium (pl- vibrio)
 Spirilum-and the spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla).
Ultra structure of a bacterial cell –

 Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in
behavior.
Cell membrane –
 Atypical bacterium body consists of cell membrane which is surrounded
by a cell wall.
 Mesosomes –
 Invagination or infolding of plasma membrane makes spherical structure
called mesosomes.
 Mesosomes has respiratory enzymes and enzymes for DNA replication.
 Mesosomes also known as analogous to mitochondria due to cellular
respiration.
Cell wall –
 Cell wall of a bacterium made up of peptidoglycan (Polysaccharide+amino
acids) or murein or mucopeptides.

 N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) & N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) are

monomeric unit of bacterial cell wall composition.
 Two layers of NAM & NAG are interconnected by polypeptide chain.
 The cell secrets a gelatinous polysaccharide sheath around the cell wall
called slime layer.
 If gelatinous sheath consist of polysaccharide+ amino acids then it is known
as capsule.
 Slime layer or capsule also known as glycocalyx.
Flagellum –
 A flagellum is made up of flagellin protein. A flagellum develops from
basal body of plasma membrane. It helps in locomotion and movement.
Pili –
 These are shorter straight made up of pilin protein. It develops from cell
membrane. It helps in anchoring the cell. Sex pili only seen in male cell,
help in formation of conjugation tube during conjugation.
Cytoplasm and its content –
 It contains organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
enzymes etc, 70S ribosomes and membrane bound organelles like
mitochondria, golgi complex, lysosome etc are absent.
 Stored food material in bacteria is glycogen.
Nucleoid or Genophore or Incipient nucleus –
 True nucleus is absent; Bacterial DNA is circular and naked because DNA
is not associated to histone proteins.
Plasmids –
 Extra small circular DNA in bacteria called plasmids.
 Plasmids carry genes for antibiotic resistance, nitrogen fixation genes
etc.
 It is autonomously independent self-replicating.
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA –
 Bacteria show autotrophic and heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
a) Autotrophic nutrition –
 In this bacteria will synthesize their own food.
 It is further two type’s photoautotrophic & chemosynthetic nutrition.
 i) Photoautotrophic or photosynthetic bacteria –
 Bacterial chlorophylls capture the sunlight for making of food.
 Bacterial chlorophylls are imbedded in cell membrane.
 Only PSI found.
 In bacterial photosynthesis there is use of H2S instead of water.
 In bacterial photosynthesis sulphur releases instead of oxygen so bacterial
photosynthesis is known as anoxygenic photosynthesis,e.g. Green and
purple sulphur bacteria.

ii) Chemoautotrophic or chemosynthetic bacteria-

  Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidize various inorganic substances
such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for
their ATP production.
 They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous,
iron and sulphur, e.g. Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrobacter etc.
b) Hetrotrophic nutrition-
i) Saprophytes-
 These bacteria also called decomposers or transformers or detrivores.
 They obtained organic food by decomposing dead and decaying matter.
 These are the most abundant bacteria among all.
ii) Parasites –
 Parasitic bacteria attack living host plants and animals and obtained food
materials and cause some diseases.
iii) Symbionts –
 These are the symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium sp have symbiotic (Mutual
beneficial) relationship with legume plants and get nutrition from them.
Reproduction in bacteria –
 Bacteria reproduce by asexual and sexual process.
1) Asexual reproduction –
 Asexual reproduction takes place by binary fission and by endospore
formation.
 Most common reproduction in bacteria is asexual reproduction by
binary fission.

 Asexual reproduction by endospore formation takes place in adverse

condition. Endospore is a bacterium which is surrounded by three thick
layers and viable for many years.
2) Sexual reproduction (Parasexual process) –
 Sexual reproduction in bacteria takes place by parasexual process.
 In parasexual process there will not be formation and fusion of gametes,
only segment of genetic material will transfer from one bacterium to
another.
 Sexual reproduction takes place by three ways –
i) By conjugation –
 In this segment of genetic material will transfer from one bacterium to
another with help of conjugation tube.

ii) By transformation –
 In this segment of genetic material will transfer from one bacterium to
another with the help of liquid medium.
ii) By transduction –
 In this segment of genetic material will transfer from one bacterium to
another with the help of bacteriophage (the virus which infect bacteria).
Economic Importance –
1) Useful Bacteria –
i) Natural scavenger-
 These are the decomposers who keep the environment clean by
decomposition of dead and decaying matter.
ii) Fermentation-
 These bacteria perform anaerobic respiration (fermentation) on
respiratory substrate and produce desire products e.g. Acetobacter aceti is
used in production vinegar.
iii) Antibiotic production –
 Antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced by bacterial cells which can
destroy other microbes, e.g. Genus Streptomyces has many species that
produce different antibiotics.
iv) Ecological importance –
 Bacteria used in sewage treatment.
 Psuedomonas sp used in to decompose crude petroleum to control oil spill.
v) Nitrogen cycle –
  Symbiotic and free living bacteria help in nitrogen fixation, e.g. Rhizobium
leguminosarum and Bacillus radicicola (Symbiotic) and Clostridium,
Azotobacter (Free living).
vi) Importance in genetic engineering –
 Escherichia coli and Agrobacterium tumefaciens are used in genetic
engineering.
2) Harmful bacteria –
i) Food spoilage –
 Clostridium botulinum produces toxins in food (food poisoning) and causes
fatal problem of botulism which can kill humans.
ii) Plants disease caused by bacteria –
 Citrus canker is caused by Xanthomonas citri in citrus plants.
 Crown gall disease is caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
iii) Humans disease caused by bacteria –
 Some of the human diseases caused by bacteria are, Anthrax, pneumonia,
cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis, leprosy, whooping cough, plague, tetanus
etc.
2.1.1 Archaebacteria –
 These bacteria are probably the most ancient or most primitive
prokaryotes.
 Most of the archaebacteria are obligate anaerobes.
 Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall
structure and this feature is responsible for their survival in extreme
conditions.
 These bacteria are special since they live in some of the harshest habitats
such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
and marshy areas (methanogens).
i) Methanogens –
 These are found in marshy/swamp, deep sewage, rumen of cattles like cow,
bufallo etc.
 These are used in biogas production,e.g. Methanobacterium,
Methanococcus.
ii) Halphiles –
 These are found in highly salty area, mostly these are anaerobic, e.g.
Halobacterium.
iii) Thermoacidophiles –
 They can survive at very high temperature (65-80C) and low pH-2 (High
acidic environment). e.g. Thermoproteus.
2.1.2 Eubacteria –
  There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’.
 They are characterized by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a
flagellum.

 The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a

similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
 The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
 Unicellular (Spirulina) Colonial (Anabaena), Filamentous (Nostoc,
Oscillatoria).
 The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
 They often form blooms (algal bloom) in polluted water bodies.
 Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells
called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by Fragmentation, Hormogonia,
Akinetes.
2.1.3 Mycoplasma –
 The Mycoplasma is organisms that completely lack a cell wall so
pleomorphic.
 Mycoplasma also known as PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like organism).
 They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen.
 Many mycoplasmas are pathogenic in animals and plants.
 Little leaf of Brinjal and Bunchy top of papaya is caused by
Mycoplasma.
 Note: Most metabolic diversity is found in members of kingdom monera.
2.2 Kingdom protista –
  All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries
of this kingdom are not well defined.
 Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
 In this book we include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime
moulds and Protozoans under Protista.
 This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals
and fungi.
 Being eukaryotes, the protist cell body contains a well-defined nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles.
 Some have flagella or cilia.
 Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion
and zygote formation.
2.2.1 Chrysophytes (Bacillariophyta) –
 This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
 They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.
 They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
 Most of them are photosynthetic.
 In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit
together as in a soap box (Upper larger called epitheca and lower smaller
called hypotheca).
 The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible.
 Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their
habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as
‘diatomaceous earth’.
 Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
 Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
2.2.2 Dinoflagellates (Pyrophyta) –
 These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
 They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main
pigments present in their cells.
 The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface known as theca
or lorica.
 Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other
transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
 Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red tides).
 Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine
animals such as fishes.
2.2.3 Euglenoids (Euglinophyta) –
 Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
 These are also called taxonomic puzzle.
 Connecting link between plants and animals.
 Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which
makes their body flexible.
 They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
 Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived
of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller
organisms and having holozoic nutrition, so Euglena is showing both kind
of nutrition called Myxotrophic mode of nutrition .

FIGURE-2.4-b
 Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in
higher plants. Example: Euglena.
 Asexual reproduction happens by longitudinal binary fission.
2.2.4 Slime Moulds –
 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.
 The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic
material.
 Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium
which may grow and spread over several feet.
 During unfavorable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.
 Spores form by meiosis.
 The spores possess true walls.
 They are extremely resistant and survive for many years, even under
adverse conditions.
 When suitable environmental condition will come then haploid spores
will convert into male & female gametes and fusion will happen followed
by formation of new individual.
  The spores are dispersed by air currents e.g. Physarum.

FIGURE- Multinucleated slime moulds.

2.2.5 Protozoans –
 All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
 They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
 There are four major groups of protozoans.
2.2.5.1 Amoeboid protozoans –
 These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.
 They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet)
as in Amoeba.
 Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as
Entamoeba are parasites.

2.2.5.2 Flagellated protozoans –

 The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic.
 They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause diaseases such as sleeping
sickness e.g. Trypanosoma gambiense (Vector is Tse Tse fly).
2.2.5.3 Ciliated protozoans –
 These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of
thousands of cilia which help in locomotion and movement.
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface.
 The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with
food to be steered into the gullet. Example: Paramoecium.
 FIGURE-2.4-d
2.2.5.4 Sporozoans –
 This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage in
their life cycle.
 The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes
malaria, a disease which has a staggering effect on human population.
2.3 Kingdom fungi –
 Study about fungi is called mycology.
 They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat.
 Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and
plants.
 We keep food in the refrigerator to prevent food from going bad due to
bacterial or fungal infections.
 You must have seen fungi on moist bread and rotten fruits.
 They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
 The common mushroom you eat and toadstools are also fungi.
 The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.
 Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead
substrates and hence are called saprophytes.
 Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
 White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus, wheat
rust-causing Puccinia
 They can also live as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and
with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
 Stored food materials in fungi are Glycogen.
 Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer.
 Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.

 Body organization in fungi –

  With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called
hyphae.

 The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.

 Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm –
these are called coenocytic hyphae (Aseptate). Others have septate or
cross walls in their hyphae.
 The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin (polysaccharides).
 Reproduction –
 Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means –
fragmentation, fission and budding.
 Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or
zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and
basidiospores.
 The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.
The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:
a) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called
plasmogamy.
b) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
c) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
 When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible
mating types come together and fuse.
 In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid
cells (2n).
 However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening
dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is
called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
 Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
 The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading
to formation of haploid spores.

Classification of kingdom mycota –

  The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting
bodies form the basis for the division of the kingdom into various classes.

2.3.1 Phycomycetes –
 Most primitive fungi and commonly known as algal fungi.
 Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying
wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants.
 The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
 Asexual reproduction –
 Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by
aplanospores (non-motile) these are also known as sporangiospores.
 These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium.
 Sexual reproduction –
 A zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes (in sexual reproduction).
 These gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar
(anisogamous or oogamous).
 Some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould mentioned
earlier).
 Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard) causes white rust in mustard
plants or in members of Brassicaceae/ cruciferae family.
2.3.2 Ascomycetes –
 Commonly known as sac-fungi (Because during sexual reproduction a sac
like structure forms).
 The ascomycetes are mostly multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely
unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
 They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing
on dung).
 Mycelium is branched and septate.
 Asexual Reproduction –
  The asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special
mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce mycelium
e.g. Penicillium.
 In yeast asexual reproduction takes place by budding.

FIGURE- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Sexual Reproduction –
 During sexual reproduction positive hyphae (+) make male gametes and
negative hyphae (-) make female gametes.
 Fusion of gametes takes place in which first plasmogamy takes place, then
dikaryon (two nucleus in a single cell) stage followed by karyogamy
(Fusion of two nucleus) and a diploid zygote forms.
 Diploid zygote forms in a sac like structure called asci (singular ascus).
 Zygotic meiosis happens in zygote and haploid Sexual spores are called
ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular
ascus).
 Total eight ascospores form in an ascus.
 Ascospores on germination give new fungal hyphae.
 These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called
ascocarps.
 Penicillium is the source of penicillin.
 Claviceps purpurea is the source of ergotin which is used for treatment of
migraine and heart palpitation.
 Aspergillus is the source of citric acid.
 Neurospora (Drosophila of plant kingdom) is used extensively in
biochemical and genetic research work.
 Many members like morels (morchella) and truffles (Tuber) are edible and
are considered delicacies.
2.3.3 Basidiomycetes –
 Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi,
club fungi or puffballs.
 They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts.
 The mycelium is branched and septate.
 Asexual reproduction- The asexual spores are generally not found, but
vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common.
 Sexual Reproduction- The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is
brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different
strains (+ and – strains) or genotypes.
 Fusion of two different strains takes place by Plasmogamy (Fusion of
cytoplasm), Dikaryon stage (Two nucleus in a single cell) followed by
karyogamy (Fusion of two nucleus).
 After complete fusion a diploid zygote forms in a special structure called
basidium.
 Zygotic meiosis takes place in the basidium producing four haploid
basidiospores.
 The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl.:
basidia).
 Basidiospores on germination form new fungal hyphae.
 The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps (Edible
portion in mushroom).
 Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and
Puccinia (rust fungus).
  Puccinia graminis- Black rust in wheat.
 Puccinia recondite- Brown rust of wheat.
 Ustilago nuda tritici- Loose smut of wheat.
2.3.4 Deuteromycetes –
 Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or
vegetative phases of these fungi are known.
 When the sexual forms of these fungi were discovered they were moved
into classes they rightly belong to.
 It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have been given one
name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and
placed under another class).
 Later when the linkages were established, the fungi were correctly identified
and moved out of deuteromycetes.
 Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of dueteromycetes were
discovered they were often moved to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.
 The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia.
The mycelium is septate and branched.
 Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of
them are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
 Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
2.4 Kingdom plantae –
 Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing
organisms commonly called plants.
 A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous
plants or parasites.
 Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and
Cuscuta is a parasite.
 The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts
and cell wall mainly made of cellulose.
 You will study the eukaryotic cell structure in detail in Chapter 8. Plantae
includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
 Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic and
the haploid gametophytic – that alternate with each other.
 The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases
are free– living or dependent on others, vary among different groups in
plants.
 This phenomenon is called alternation of generation. You will study
further details of this kingdom in Chapter 3.
 Note: Insectivorous plants eat insects just to fulfill the deficiency of
nitrogen.
2.5 Kingdom animalia –
 This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that
are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.
 They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
 They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as
glycogen or fat.
 Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
 They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a
definite shape and size.
 Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
 Most of them are capable of locomotion.
 The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by
embryological development.
2.6 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS –
 In the five kingdoms classification of Whittaker there is no mention of
lichens and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions.
 These are briefly introduced here.
 All of us who have suffered the ill effects of common cold or ‘flu’ know
what effects viruses can have on us, even if we do not associate it with our
condition.
2.6.1 Viruses –
 Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not considered
truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those organisms that have a cell
structure.
 The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having an
inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
 Viruses are connecting link between living and non living.
Living Features Non-living features
1. Viruses are having either DNA or 1. Absence of cellular organisation
RNA as genetic materials.
2. They can reproduce in living 2. Inert outside the host cells.
host cells
3. Nucleic acids can undergo for 3. They can be crystalized.
mutation
4. The nucleic acids are having 4. Absence of enzyme.
same composition to those of other
living organisms
 Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to
replicate themselves, killing the host.
 The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by
Pasteur.
 Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognized certain microbes as causal organism
of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
 These were found to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through
bacteria-proof filters.
 M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants
of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and called the fluid as
Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
 W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallized and crystals
consist largely of proteins.
 They are inert outside their specific host cell.
 Viruses are obligate parasites.
 In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material,that could be
either RNA or DNA.
 No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
 A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious.
 In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and
viruses that infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA or
double stranded DNA.
  Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are
usually double stranded DNA viruses.
 The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres,
protects the nucleic acid.
 These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral forms.
 Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza.
 AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus (HIV).
2.6.2 Tobaco mosaic virus –
 It is the rod shape virus,The protein coat called capsid made of small
subunits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid. These capsomeres
are arranged in helical or polyhedral forms.
 In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling,
yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth (Tobaco
mosaic disease in tobacco plants).
2.6.3 Viroids –
 In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller
than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease (PSTD).
 It was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in
viruses, hence the name viroid.
 The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.
2.6.4 Prions –
 In modern medicine certain infectious neurological diseases were found
to be transmitted by an agent consisting of abnormally folded protein.
 The agent was similar in size to viruses.
 These agents were called prions (made up of only proteins).
 The most notable diseases caused by prions are bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle
and its analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
2.6.5 Lichens –
 Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful associations,
between algae and fungi.
 Pioneer community in plant succession.
 The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as
mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively.
 Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb
mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
 So close is their association that if one saw lichen in nature one would never
imagine that they had two different organisms within them.
 Lichens are very good pollution indicators (Air pollution-Sulphur
dioxide) – they do not grow in polluted areas.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
 F or fertility factor (F plasmid)- F+ cells carrying F factor act as donar
and are called F+ or male. F- cells lacking F factor act as recipient and
are called F- or female.
 Endospores- Endospore formation occurs in adverse situation. In this a
bacterium is surrounded by three thick layers. It can show the resistance to
temperature, radiation, antibiotics, and chemicals.
 Pasteurization – It is the heat killing of microbes in food items especially
liquid food by supplying of heat 71 C0 for 15 second.