CHAPTER 5

Evaporation and
Transpiration
Evaporation
•Evaporation or vaporization is the
process by which water changes from
liquid state to vaporous state. This
change in state requires an exchange
of approximately 2.5 kJ energy for
each gram of water evaporated.
 Factors Controlling
the Evaporation Process
1. Meteorological factors
-temperature
-wind
-humidity
-solar radiation
2. Nature of evaporating surface
3. Effects of Water Quality
 Factors Controlling the
Evaporation Process
1. Meteorological factors
1.1) Temperature - The rate of evaporation increases
with an increase in temperature.
1.2) Wind - Evaporation increases with an increase in
wind speed.
1.3) Humidity - The amount of water vapour present
in the air is called humidity. The rate of evaporation
decreases with an increase in humidity.
1.4) Solar Radiation - Changes depend upon latitude,
season, time of day and sky condition (cloudiness)
 Factors Controlling the
Evaporation Process
2. Nature of Evaporating Surface
- The rate of evaporation increases with an
increase in surface area.

3. Effects of water quality – Turbidity, color, odor

and pH of water.
 Nature of evaporating surface
1. Vegetation
2. Building
3. Paved streets
4. Soil surface
5. Snow/ice
6. Water Surface

 Effects of Water Quality

Salinity / Dissolved Solids
vapor pressure of seawater = 35,000 ppm dissolved
salts, which is 2% less than that of the pure water at
the same temperature.
 Methods for the Determination
of Reservoir Evaporation

1. ) Water-Budget Method
2. ) Energy-Budget Method
3. ) Mass Transfer Method or
Aerodynamic Method
Water-Budget Method

It is based on measurement of continuity of water flow-essentially, the

budget comprised by the various items of input, and water storage of
hydrologic system.

Continuity equation
E=(S₁ - S₂) + I + P – O – Os
Where E= evaporation
S₁ ,S₂ = storage at time 1 and 2

I = surface inflow
P = precipitation
O = surface outflow
Os = subsurface seepage (most difficult to evaluate)
Energy-Budget Method

This method is similar to the Water Balance Method except that it deals with
the continuity of energy flow instead of water flow. Use continuity equation in
energy units
Qn – Qh – Qe = Qθ– Qv
Where Qn = net radiation absorbed by water body.

Qh= sensible heat transfer (conduction) to the atmosphere (cannot be

readily observed.)
Qe = energy used for evaporation
Qθ = increased in energy stored in water body
Qv = advected energy (net energy content of inflow and
outflow elements). all expressed in equivalent energy units
per unit of surface (cal/ cm²).

Qe = Qn - Qh- Qθ + Qv(cal/ cm²)

 Mass Transfer Method/
Aerodynamic Method

Aside from the supply of heat energy, the third factor controlling the evaporation
rate is the ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporating surface. The
transport rate is governed by the wind velocity over the surface and the specific
humidity gradient in the air above it.

E= (es- eo) (a + bu)

Where E = rate of evaporation

a and b = are empirical constants

u = wind velocity at some fixed height from the water surface
es, eo = the saturation vapour pressure at water surface.
Evaporating Pans
The most widely used method of finding reservoir
evaporation is by means of evaporation pans.
Pans are basically water filled containers.
Evaporation is found by observing how much
water is lost over time.
Evaporimeters
 These are pans containing water which are
exposed to the atmosphere.

 Loss of water by evaporation from these pans

are measured at regular intervals (daily).

 Meteorological data such as humidity, wind

velocity, air and water temperatures, and
precipitation are also measured and noted
along with evaporation.
Types of Evaporimeters
1.) U. S. Class A Evaporation pan
2.) Colorado Sunken Pan
3.) U.S. Geological Survey Floating Pan
4.) IS Standard Pan
•[Link] A Evaporation Pan
 A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255mm
 Depth of water is maintained between 18cm and 20cm
 The pan is made of unpainted GI sheet
 The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height 15cm
above ground level
 Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of
water in a stilling well with a hook gauge
 •Colorado Sunken Pan
 920mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet,
460mm deep, and buried into the ground within
100mm of the top
 Main advantage of this pan – its aerodynamic and
radiation characteristics are similar to that of a lake
 Disadvantages – difficult to detect leaks, expensive to
install
•U.S. Geological Survey Floating Pan
 The pan is 90cm square in plan and 45cm deep.
 It is supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of the
size 4.25m x 4.87m.
 The pan is set afloat in a lake to simulate the characteristics
of a large reservoir.
 The pan has the following disadvantages :
(i) The cost of installation and maintenance is high.
(ii) It is difficult and inconvenient to take measurement.
 •ISI Standard Pan
 A pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm
 The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside
and painted white outside
 The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width
1225mm and height 100mm above ground level to allow free
air circulation below the pan
 A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water
Transpiration
•Transpiration is the
process by which moisture
is carried through plants
from roots to small pores
on the underside of leaves,
where it changes to vapor
and is released to the
atmosphere.
Factors affecting transpiration are:
1. Atmospheric Temperature
2. Wind
3. Light Intensity
4. Relative Humidity
5. Characteristics of plant
- plant type (shallow rooted / deep rooted)
- available water (wilting point / field capacity).
- density of vegetative cover

Wilting point - is the moisture content at

which permanent wilting of plant occurs.
3 types - * Incipient Wilting
* Temporary Wilting
* Permanent Wilting
 Measurement of Transpiration
Phytometer - a device for measuring transpiration, consisting of
a vessel containing soil in which one or more plants are rooted
and sealed so that water can escape only by transpiration from
the plant.
Evapotranspiration
•In studying the
hydrologic balance for
a catchment area, one
is usually concerned
with the total
evaporation or
evapotranspiration,
the evaporation from
all water, soil, snow,
ice, vegetation, and
other surfaces (plus)
transpiration.
Measurement of
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Not easy to measure
Specific devices and accurate measurements
are needed
Expensive
Demanding in terms of accuracy of
measurement
Can only be fully exploited by well-trained
research personnel.
Estimating
Evapotranspiration (ET)
•Direct Measurement
Involves isolating a portion of the crop from its
surroundings and determining ET by measurement.
(Lysimeter)
•Indirect Measurement
Equations
 Theoretical and empirical equations
 Penman’s Method
 Hargreaves and Samani Method
 Blaney Criddle Method
 Pan Evaporation Method
 Direct Measurement
Lysimeter
 A lysimeter (from Greek λύσις (loosening) and the suffix -
meter) is a measuring device which can be used to measure
the amount of actual evapotranspiration which is released
by plants (usually crops). By recording the amount of
precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost
through the soil, the amount of water lost to
evapotranspiration can be calculated.

 It is a special water-tight tank containing a block of soil and

set in a field of growing plants.

 It is time consuming and expensive.

Lysimeter
Indirect Measurement
Indirect Measurement
Indirect Measurement
Indirect Measurement
Sample Problems
 A Class A Pan was setup adjacent to a lake. The depth of
water in the pan at beginning was 195mm. In that week, a
rainfall of 45mm was observed and 15mm of water was
removed from the Pan to keep the water level in the
specified depth. If the depth of the water at the end of the
week was 190mm, calculate the Pan evaporation using a
suitable pan coefficient and estimate lake evaporation of
the week.

 Solution:
Sample Problems
 Compute the ET value in the month of July at a place 28*N
latitude if the long term data of temperature for the month
of July is 30.5*C. The value of consumptive use coefficient
for the month maybe taken as 0.6 compute the value
separately, using Blaney-Criddle Method.

 Solution:
PET=p(0.46Tmean + 8.188)
 QUIZ 1
1-2.) Give the importance of evaporation in the field of engineering.

3.) __________________ is the process by which moisture is carried through

plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it
changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere.

4-6.) Give the three methods in determining the reservoir evaporation.

7.) The pan is set afloat in a lake to simulate the characteristics of a large
reservoir. What kind of evaporimeter is this?

8.) A device for measuring transpiration, consisting of a vessel containing

soil in which one or more plants are rooted and sealed so that water can
escape only by transpiration from the plant.

9.) ____________the amount of water vapour present in the air.

10.) ___________ a pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255m. It is made of

copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside. It is a
modified form of U.S. Class Evaporation Pan.
CALANOG, REIZEN V.
BSCE-IV