HAND BOOK ON FACADE TECHNOLOGY

ALUMCO L.L.C
P.O. BOX 49668
DUBAI
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
PH: +971 4 8851415
FAX: +971 4 8851416
MAIL: [email protected]
WEB: www.alumco.ae
INTRODUCTION

A curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal
panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached to the building structure and does not carry the
floor or roof loads of the building. The wind and gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to
the building structure, typically at the floor line. Aluminum framed wall systems date back to the
1930's, and developed rapidly after World War II when the supply of aluminum became available
for non-military use.

Curtain wall systems range from manufacturer's standard catalogue systems to specialized
custom walls. Custom walls become cost competitive with standard systems as the wall area
increases. This section incorporates comments about standard and custom systems. It is
recommended that consultants be hired with an expertise in custom curtain wall design for
projects that incorporate these systems.

Alumco L.L.C Page 2

DESCRIPTION

The following are brief descriptions of commonly used curtain wall farming methods and
components.

Curtain walls can be classified by their method of fabrication and installation into the following
general categories: stick systems and unitized (also known as modular) systems. In the stick
system, the curtain wall frame (mullions) and glass or opaque panels are installed and connected
together piece by piece. In the unitized system, the curtain wall is composed of large units that
are assembled and glazed in the factory, shipped to the site and erected on the building. Vertical
and horizontal mullions of the modules mate together with the adjoining modules. Modules are
generally constructed one story tall and one module wide but may incorporate multiple modules.
Typical units are five to six feet wide.

Curtain walls can also be classified as water managed or pressure-equalized systems. See
Moisture Protection below.

Both the unitized and stick-built systems are designed to be either interior or exterior glazed
systems. Interior and exterior glazed systems offer different advantages and disadvantages.
Interior glazed systems allow for glass or opaque panel installation into the curtain wall openings
from the interior of the building. Details are not provided for interior glazed systems because air
infiltration is a concern with interior glazed systems. Interior glazed systems are typically
specified for applications with limited interior obstructions to allow adequate access to the
interior of the curtain wall. For low rise construction with easy access to the building, outside
glazing is typically specified. For high-rise construction interior glazing is sometimes used due to
access and logistics of replacing glass from a swing stage.

In exterior glazed systems, glass and opaque panels are installed from the exterior of the curtain
wall. Exterior glazed systems require swing stage or scaffolding access to the exterior of the
curtain wall for repair or replacement. Some curtain wall systems can be glazed from either the
interior or exterior.

Typical opaque panels include opacified spandrel glass, metal panels, thin stone, and other
materials, such as terra cotta or FRP (fiber-reinforced plastic).

Vision glass is predominantly insulating glass and may have one or both lites laminated, usually
fixed but sometimes glazed into operable window frames that are incorporated into the curtain
wall framing.

Spandrel glass can be monolithic, laminated, or insulating glass. The spandrel glass can be made
opaque through the use of opacifiers (film/paint or ceramic frit) applied on an unexposed surface
or through "shadow box" construction, i.e., providing an enclosed space behind clear spandrel

Alumco L.L.C Page 3

glass. Shadow box construction creates a perception of depth behind the spandrel glass that is
sometimes desired.

Metal panels can take various forms including aluminum plate, stainless steel or other non-
corrosive metal, thin composite panels consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching a
thin plastic interlayer, or panels consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or
without an inner metal sheet to create a sandwich panel.

Thin stone panels are most commonly granite. White marble should not be used due to its
susceptibility to deformation due to hysteresis (thin stone is not covered in this chapter).

The curtain wall often comprises one part of a building's wall system. Careful integration with
adjacent elements such as other wall claddings, roofs, and base of wall details is required for a
successful installation.

Alumco L.L.C Page 4

FUNDAMENTALS

System Types

Face-sealed, water-managed and pressure-equalized rain screen systems are the three systems
that are available. Normally, pressure-equalized rain screen systems provide the highest levels of
resistance to air and water infiltration, with water-managed systems the next most reliable.

Pressure-equalized rain screen systems function by blocking all of the forces that can drive water
across a barrier. See the article on Moisture Protection for a complete explanation of how
pressure-equalization resists water passage. As related to curtain wall systems, PE rain screen
systems design the inside face of glass and the inside face of the glazing pocket and the
interconnecting gasket or wet seal as an airtight barrier. The outside face of glass, exterior
glazing materials and the outer exposed face of aluminum framing function as a rain screen,
shedding water away. Between the exterior rain screen and the interior air barrier a pressure-
equalization chamber is formed in the glazing pocket, which serves to reduce water penetration
by eliminating (equalizing) the pressure difference across the rain screen that tends to force
water into the system. Minor amounts of water that may penetrate the system are weeped
harmlessly to the exterior.

Water-managed systems appear similar at first glance, incorporating drains and weeps from the
glazing pocket, but no effort is made to create an air barrier or "zone-glaze" each glass or
spandrel unit, and therefore a larger amount of water is forced into the system and must be
weeped away. Also, since no air barrier exists, the pressure differential between the glazing
pocket and the interior may be strong enough to force water vertically higher than interior
gaskets, resulting in leaks. Weep holes in a water-managed system function largely to drain water
that enters the glazing pocket while weep holes in a pressure-equalized system function primarily
as vents to allow air movement between the exterior and glazing pocket. Weeping of water is only
a secondary function. Note that the easiest way to recognize a pressure-equalized rain screen
system is yo note that the that glazing pocket around each individual unit of glass is isolated air
tight from adjacent units, most obviously with plugs or seals at the gaps between screw splines at
mullion intersections. Detailing of spandrels, shadow boxes and interface with adjacent
construction must maintain the continuity of the air barrier and rainscreen to function properly
with a pressure-equalized rainscreen curtain wall framing system.

Some aluminum curtain wall systems are still designed as face-sealed barrier walls. They depend
on continuous and perfect seals between the glass units and the frame and between all frame
members to perform. The long-term reliability of such seals is extremely suspect and such
systems should be avoided.

Alumco L.L.C Page 5

Thermal Performance (Conduction, Solar Radiation, Thermal Break, Comfort)

Overall curtain wall thermal performance is a function of the glazing infill panel, the frame,
construction behind opaque (spandrel and column cover) areas, and the perimeter details.

Curtain wall frame conductance is a function of the frame material, geometry and fabrication
(e.g. thermal break).

Aluminum has a very high thermal conductivity. It is common practice to incorporate thermal
breaks of low conductivity materials, traditionally PVC, Neoprene rubber, polyurethane and more
recently polyester-reinforced nylon, for improved thermal performance. Some "poured and
debridged" polyurethane thermal breaks shrink and stress forms in the thermal break when the
exterior aluminum moves differently from the interior aluminum due to temperature differences.
Back-up mechanical attachment of the two halves of the frame is recommended (e.g. skip
debridging or "t-in-a box"). A true thermal break is ¼" thick minimum and can be up to 1" or more,
with the polyester reinforced nylon variety. Some curtain wall systems incorporate separators
that are less than ¼", making them "thermally improved". The deeper thermal breaks can
improve thermal performance and condensation resistance of the system.

Some curtain wall systems utilize "pressure bars" (also referred to as "pressure plates") that are
fastened to the outside of the mullions to retain the glass. These systems frequently include
gaskets that are placed between the pressure bar and mullions and function as thermal breaks
and help with acoustic isolation. These systems require special care in design and construction
to ensure continuity of the gaskets at horizontal and vertical transitions. Gaskets are also used to
cushion the glass on the interior and exterior faces of the glass. The problem with gaskets is that
they tend to be stretched during installation and will shrink back to their original length in a short
time; they will also shrink with age and exposure to ultraviolet radiation. There is usually a gap in
the gasket at the corners after shrinkage occurs. With a properly designed system the water that
enters the system at the gasket corners will weep out through the snap cover weep holes. To
mitigate shrinkage of gaskets back from the corners the use of vulcanized corners and diagonally
cut splices are recommended.

Thermal performance of opaque areas of the curtain wall is a function of insulation and air/vapor
barriers. Due to the lack of interior air adjacent to opaque curtain wall areas, these areas are
subject to wide swings in temperature and humidity and require careful detailing of insulation
and air/vapor barriers to minimize condensation. Some curtain wall systems include
condensation drainage provisions, such as condensate gutters, that are intended to collect and
weep condensate from spandrel areas to the exterior; such condensate gutters and weeps are a
violation of the air barrier of the curtain wall unless they are outboard of the backpan. See
discussion of back pans below.

Alumco L.L.C Page 6

At the curtain wall perimeter, maintaining continuity of the air barrier reduces airflows around the
curtain wall. Integration of perimeter flashings helps ensure watertight performance of the
curtain wall and its connection to adjacent wall elements. Proper placement of insulation at the
curtain wall perimeter reduces energy loss and potential condensation issues. Insulating the
mullions in a spandrel area may lead to excessive condensation in cold climates unless it can
also be assured that humid air from the interior will never come in contact with the mullions. The
spandrel area is typically not heated, thus the interior environment does not warm the mullions
and offset the migration of the cold temperatures deep into the wall. In the vision area the
interior heat helps to mitigate the cold and prevents condensation. For this reason, do not
insulate between the interior portion of mullions and adjacent wall construction either.

Moisture Protection (Water Penetration, Condensation Resistance)

Water penetration resistance is a function of glazing details, frame construction and drainage
details, weather-stripping and frame gaskets, interior sealants, and perimeter flashings and
seals. Water can enter the exterior wall system by means of five different forces: gravity, kinetic
energy, air pressure difference, surface tension, and capillary action. To mitigate water
infiltration, all of these forces must be accounted for in the system design.

Unlike discontinuous windows, which are smaller units and can rely to a high degree on sill
flashings to capture frame corner leakage, curtain walls cover large expanses of wall without sill
flashings at each glazed opening. Water penetration of curtain wall frame corners is likely to leak
to the interior and/or onto insulating glass below. Watertight frame corner construction and good
glazing pocket drainage are critical for reliable water penetration resistance.

Visual (Day lighting, Aesthetics)

Key visual features of curtain walls are glazing appearance and sightlines. Sightlines are defined
as the visual profile of the vertical and horizontal mullions. The sightlines are a function of both
the width and depth of the curtain wall frame. Lateral load resistance requirements (wind loads,
spans) generally dictate frame depth. Where narrow sightlines are desired, steel stiffeners
inserted into the hollow frame of aluminum extrusions can help reduce frame depth.

Sound (Acoustics)

The acoustic performance of curtain walls is primarily a function of the glazing and internal seals
to stop air leakage (covered elsewhere). The sound attenuation capability of curtain walls can be
improved by installing sound attenuating infill and by making construction as airtight as possible.
Incorporating different thicknesses of glass in an insulated glass unit will also help to mitigate
exterior noise. This can be accomplished by increasing the thickness of one of the lites of glass or
by incorporating a laminated layer of glass with a noise-reducing interlayer, typically a polyvinyl
butyral or PVB.

Alumco L.L.C Page 7

Back Pans

Back pans are metal sheets, usually aluminum or galvanized steel, that are attached and sealed
to the curtain wall framing around the perimeter behind opaque areas of a curtain wall. In cold
climates insulation should be installed between the back pan and the exterior cladding in order
to maintain the dew point outboard of the back pan so that the back pan acts as an air and vapor
barrier. Back pans provide a second line of defense against water infiltration for areas of the
curtain wall that are not visible from the interior and are difficult to access. Water infiltration in
opaque areas can continue for extended periods of time causing significant damage before being
detected. Back pans also are to be preferred over foil vapor retarders in high performance and
humidified buildings as convection currents short-circuiting the insulation can cause
condensation, wetting and ultimately failure of these spandrel areas.

Shadow Boxes

Shadow box construction creates the appearance of depth behind a transparent lite of glass by
incorporating a metal sheet into the curtain wall behind the lite. The metal sheet should be at
least two inches behind the glass and may be painted or formed to create a texture, but reflective
surfaces add the most visual depth to the wall. Insulation should also be installed behind the
shadow box if interior finishes prevent room air from contacting this area. The system should be
designed to collect any condensation that may collect on the exterior side of the metal sheet and
drain it back to the exterior. Shadow boxes present a variety of challenges related to venting the
cavity behind the glass, that can allow dirt on surfaces difficult to clean, or sealing the cavity and
risking excessive heat build-up. Either way, the cavity may be at temperatures significantly above
or below interior conditions with only thermally conductive aluminum between them. This can
lead to condensation or surfaces so hot they can burn. Careful detailing can provide a method to
thermally isolate the cavity from the interior. An interior back pan behind the insulation is
desirable as well, to avoid condensation on the metal shadow box from the interior.

Support of Curtain Walls

Curtain wall systems must transfer back to floor structure or intermediate framing both their own
dead load plus any live loads, which consist primarily of positive and negative wind loads but
might also include a snow load applied to large horizontal areas, seismic loads, maintenance
loads and others. Unfortunately, the curtain wall will likely demonstrate movement caused by
thermal changes and wind significantly different than movement of the building structure.
Therefore the connections to anchor the curtain wall must be designed to allow differential
movement while resisting the loads applied.

In stick-framed aluminum curtain wall, vertical mullions commonly run past two floors, with a
combined gravity/lateral anchor at one floor and a lateral anchor only at the other. The splice
between the vertical mullions will also be designed to allow vertical movement while providing

Alumco L.L.C Page 8

lateral resistance. In large areas of stick framed curtain wall, a split vertical mullion will be
introduced periodically to allow thermal movement. Note that this movement slightly distorts the
anchors at the vertical mullions. Individual units of glass must accommodate the movement of
the surrounding aluminum frame by sliding along glazing gaskets, distorting the gaskets or a
combination of both. The movement of the glass within the frame and the movement forced in
the anchors tend to induce additional stresses into a stick framed system.

Unitized curtain wall systems accommodate the differential movement between the structure
and the thermal movement of the frame at the joints between each curtain wall unit. Because
these units are frequently custom designed, the amount of movement to be accommodated can
be carefully engineered into the system. Anchoring of unitized curtain wall typically consists of a
proprietary assembly with three-way dimensional adjustability. The anchors occur at each pair of
vertical mullions along the edge of slab or spandrel beam. Frequently, unitized systems span
from a horizontal stack joint located at approximately desk height up to the anchor at the floor
line above and then cantilevering past the floor to the next horizontal stack joint. The stack joint
is designed to resist lateral loads while the two floor anchors resist gravity and lateral loads. One
of the two floor anchors will allow movement in plane with the unitized system.

Alumco L.L.C Page 9

Safety

Fire Safety

Fire safing and smoke seal at gaps between the floor slab-edge and the back of the curtain wall
are essential to compartmentalize between floors and slow down the passage of fire and
combustion gases between floors. A substantial ½" thick minimum poured smoke-seal is
required to separate air return and supply plenums from each other, and for infection control in
hospitals. Laboratory-tested fire rated assemblies may be required in unsprinklered buildings by
some codes as Perimeter Fire Containment Systems when the floor assemblies are required to
be fire-resistance rated. The ratings of the Perimeter Fire Containment System must be equal to
or greater than the floor rating. These systems provide confidence that the materials used for
perimeter containment remain in place for the specified duration of the required rating in a fire
event.

Fireman knock-out glazing panels are often required for venting and emergency access from the
exterior. Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of the panel
into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening. Knock-out panels are identified by
a non-removable reflective dot (typically two inches in diameter) located in the lower corner of the
glass and visible from the ground by the fire department.

Alumco L.L.C Page 10

Maintenance Access

The curtain wall should be designed for accessibility for maintenance. Low-rise buildings can
generally be accessed from the ground using equipment with articulated arms. For high rise
construction the building should be designed for swing stage access for window cleaning, general
maintenance, and repair work, like glass replacement. Davits and fall arrest safety tieback
anchors should be provided on the roof and stabilization tie-offs provided on the face of the wall
to comply with OSHA standards CFR 1910.66, CFR 1910.28 and ANSI/IWCA I-14.1 "Window
Cleaning Safety Standard".

Alumco L.L.C Page 11

Health and Indoor Air Quality

Curtain wall leakage, both air and water, can contribute to IAQ problems by supplying liquid water
and condensation moisture for mold growth. This leakage can often remain concealed within the
wall system and not become evident until concealed wall components experience significant
deterioration and mold growth, requiring costly repairs.

Alumco L.L.C Page 12

Durability and Service Life Expectancy

Common curtain wall durability problems include the following:

Glazing failures Glazing problems specific to curtain wall construction include visual obstruction
from condensation or dirt, damage to opacifier films from material degradation, condensation
and/or heat build-up, and IGU issues/laminated glass issues.

Failure of internal gaskets and sealants from curtain wall movements (thermal, structural),
prolonged exposure to water (good drainage features reduce this risk), heat/sun/UV degradation
(age). Repairs (if feasible) require significant disassembly of curtain wall. If restoration of internal
seals is not physically possible or not economically feasible, installation of exterior surface wet
sealing at all glazing and frame joints is often performed.

Failure of exposed gaskets and sealants, including perimeter sealants, from curtain wall
movements (thermal, structural), environmental degradation. Repairs require exterior access.

Aluminum frames are inherently corrosion resistant in many environments if anodized and
properly sealed or painted with baked-on fluoropolymer paint. Aluminum frames are subject to
deterioration of the coating and corrosion of aluminum in severe (industrial, coastal)
environments and galvanic corrosion from contact with dissimilar metals. Frame corner seals
constructed using sealant are prone to debonding from prolonged contact with moisture and
from thermal, structural, and transportation movements.

Alumco L.L.C Page 13

Maintainability and Reparability

Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize the service life of the
curtain walls. Perimeter sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10
to 15 years although breaches are likely from day one. Removal and replacement of perimeter
sealants requires meticulous surface preparation and proper detailing.

Aluminum frames are generally painted or anodized. Factory applied fluoropolymer thermoset
coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require only periodic cleaning.
Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires special surface
preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating.

Anodized aluminum frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place, but can be cleaned and protected
by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.

Exposed glazing seals and gaskets require inspection and maintenance to minimize water
penetration, limit exposure of frame seals, and protect insulating glass seals from wetting.

Alumco L.L.C Page 14

Sustainability

The best strategy for sustainability of curtain walls is to employ good design practices to ensure
the durability (maximum service life) of the installation and to use systems that have a good
thermal break and high R-value (values as high as R-7 are possible with triple-glazed systems).
Also, the use of low-e and spectrally selective glass coatings can significantly reduce energy loads
and improve comfort close to the wall.

Aluminum and steel frames are typically recycled at the end of their service life. Salvage and
demolition contractors generally require a minimum of 1,000 sq ft or more of window/curtain
wall to make material recycling economical (smaller amounts are generally disposed as general
trash). Recycling is less economical if the aluminum is contaminated with sealants, fractured
glazing, etc., as salvage companies pay considerably less for the material. There is a limited
market for salvaged steel and wood frames.

Alumco L.L.C Page 15

APPLICATIONS

Establish System Track Record

Select a curtain wall with a demonstrated track record in similar applications and exposures.
Verifying track records may require significant research by the designer. ASTM E1825 provides
guidance.

Review laboratory test results of systems or similar custom systems for air, water, and structural
resistance, heat transmission, condensation resistance, sound transmission, and operability.
Verify that tests pertain to the system under consideration and not a version of the system with
the same product name but of different construction.

Designing for Waterproofing Performance

Curtain wall design should start with the assumption that external glazing seals, perimeter
sealant joints and curtain wall sills will leak. The following summarizes recommended features:

• Select frames with wept glazing and pocket sills sloped to the exterior to collect water
that penetrates the glazing and drain it to the exterior. Do not use vertical mullions as
drain conductors. Each glazing pocket should be fully isolated from adjacent glazing
pockets. Provide a sill flashing with end dams and with an upturned back leg turned up
into the glazing pocket at the base of the curtain wall to collect and drain curtain wall sill
leakage; provide jamb flashings to direct perimeter leakage down to the sill flashing.
• Key frame drainage features include slope to the exterior at surfaces that collect water
(slope top of exposed horizontal mullion surfaces, slope at flashings), large (3/8 inch
diameter or a slot 5/16" x 3/8" minimum) weep holes closely spaced (three weep holes
per each section of horizontal mullion between vertical mullions, typically), and drainage
at every horizontal frame (do not use vertical frames to drain past horizontal frames). Use
as many 1/4-inch by 2-inch slots as required for pressure-equalized systems. Design the
drainage system to handle condensation as well as rain.
• Curtain wall perimeters should have flashings (sill, jambs and head) that are sealed to the
air and water barrier at adjacent walls. Slope head and sill flashings to the exterior to
promote drainage. Integrate curtain wall sill flashings with sill flashings or base of wall
flashings of adjacent walls. Curtain wall should have a primary air/water seal between the
shoulder of the tube at the plane of the glazing pocket and the air barrier of the adjacent
construction.
• Perimeter sealants are useful as a rainscreen for limiting air and water penetration
through the outermost plane of the wall, but should not be relied upon as the sole
air/water penetration barrier.
• Coordinate placement of setting blocks with weep holes to avoid blocking drainage paths.

Alumco L.L.C Page 16

Glazing Methods and Their Impact on Performance

Pressure Plate Glazing: In this system the glass and infill panels are installed from the exterior,
typically against dry gaskets. The outer layer of gaskets is installed and the gaskets are
compressed against the glass by the torque applied to fasteners securing a continuous pressure
plate. The plate is later typically covered with a snap-on mullion cover. This system provides
reasonable performance but is susceptible to leaks at corners or joints in dry gaskets. For
improved performance four-sided gaskets can be fabricated at additional cost or wet sealants
can be installed to provide a concealed interior toe bead or exposed interior cap beads. Pressure
plate glazing allows the easiest method to seal an air barrier from adjacent construction into the
air barrier of curtain wall system.

Interior Dry Glazing: In this system the glass and infill panels are installed from the interior of the
building, eliminating the need for substantial scaffolding and saving money. The frame is fixed
and exterior dry gaskets are installed. Typically only the top interior mullion has a removable stop.
The glass unit is slid into a deep glazing pocket on one jamb far enough to allow clearing the
opposite jamb and is then slid back into the opposite glazing pocket and then dropped into the
sill glazing pocket. The removable interior stop is installed and finally an interior wedge gasket is
forced in. Sometimes this method is called "jiggle" or "wiggle" glazing because of the
manipulation necessary to get the glass into place. Performance is slightly reduced because dry
metal to metal joints occur at the ends of the removable stop at a point that should properly be
air and watertight. Wet sealant heel beads will improve performance and some systems include
an extra gasket to form an air barrier seal. Installation of spandrel panels may need to be
installed from the exterior.

Structural Silicone Glazing: In this system the glass or infill unit is adhered to the frame with a
bead of silicone. Outer silicone weather seals supplement the structural seal. Unitized systems
are frequently structural silicone glazed, especially if four-side SSG is desired. Two-sided SSG,
with pressure plate glazing or wiggle glazing on the other two sides is acceptable to be field
installed.

Butt-Glazing: SSG is frequently mistakenly referred to as butt-glazing. True butt-glazing has no

mullion or other back-up member behind the joint and relies solely on a sealant, typically silicone,
between the glass units to provide a perfect barrier seal.

Alumco L.L.C Page 17

Designing for Condensation Resistance

AAMA's Curtain Wall Design Guide provides guidance on window selection for condensation
resistance. Establish the required Condensation Resistance Factor (CRF) based on anticipated
interior humidity and local climate data and select a curtain wall with an appropriate CRF.
Designers should be aware that the CRF is a weighted average number for a curtain wall
assembly. The CRF does not give information about cold spots that could result in local
condensation. Projects for which condensation control is a critical concern, such as high interior
humidity buildings, require project-specific finite element analysis thermal modeling using
software such as THERM. Careful analysis and modeling of interior conditions is required to
accurately estimate the interior temperature of the air at the inside surfaces of the glass and
frame. Curtain walls that are set well outboard of perimeter heating elements will have air
temperatures along their interior surface that are significantly lower than the design wintertime
interior temperatures. Thermal modeling of the building interior using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) software can help establish a reasonable estimate for air temperatures at the
inside surfaces of the glass and frame. These interior air temperatures are inputs for the thermal
modeling software. Include lab mock-up thermal testing in addition to CFD modeling for analysis
of project-specific conditions. Unusual or custom details, such as copings, deep sills, projected
windows, spandrel areas and shadow box can dramatically alter performance.

Use thermally broken or thermally improved aluminum frames for best performance. At the
perimeter of the curtain wall, the thermal break must be properly positioned with respect to the
wall system/insulation to avoid exposing the aluminum frame inboard of the thermal break to
cold air ("short circuiting" the thermal break). Special insulation provisions may be required
where curtain walls project beyond adjacent cladding systems (e.g., an insulated perimeter
extrusion or metal panning).

Consider frame geometry for thermally conductive aluminum frame materials. Minimize the
proportion of framing exposed to the outdoors.

Refer to AAMA 1503 for descriptions of test method, parameters and equipment for determining
U factors and CRF's for window products. Refer to NFRC 100 for U Factor and NFRC 500 for
condensation resistance.

Alumco L.L.C Page 18

Designing for Solar Heat Gain Control and Solar Optical Properties

The use of glazed curtain walls can present challenges in balancing the desire for more natural
daylight versus addressing the heat gain typically associated with such systems. Occasionally,
there are concerns relating to having too much uncontrolled daylight, sometimes referred to as
glare. The challenge is to strive for the highest visible light transmittance (VT) and the lowest
solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) while not preventing the glass from being too reflective when
viewed from both the exterior and the interior, while controlling glare. This glass performance
data are obtained from data using the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) Window
5.2 program with Environmental Conditions set at NFRC 100 criteria. NFRC 200 is used to
determine the VT and SHGC values while the solar optical properties are determined using NFRC
300. Typically, for products more widely available on the market, the aforementioned values are
readily available from glass manufacturers/fabricators.

Designing for Finish Durability

Aluminum: Class I anodic coatings (AAMA 611, supersedes AAMA 606, 607 and 608) and high
performance factory applied fluoropolymer thermoset coatings (AAMA 2605) have good
resistance to environmental degradation.

Alumco L.L.C Page 19

Unitized Systems

Unitized systems are typically custom designed. There isa wide range of systems on the market
from manufacturers that provide varying levels of reliability. Unitized systems range in
performance ability from industry standard to high performance walls. It is thus recommended
that projects specifying unitized curtain wall systems incorporate a team member who has a
breadth of experience in designing and working with unitized systems.

Unitized systems are typically pressure equalized rain screen systems. The units should be
completely assembled in a factory and shipped to the site for installation on the building. The
units are placed on the floors, bundled in crates, using the tower crane and lowered into place
using a smaller crane or hoist owned by the glazing contractor. The mullion dimensions tend to
be slightly larger than a stick system due to their open section as compared to the tube shape of
a standard stick curtain wall section. The advantages of the unitized system derive from the more
reliable seals achievable from factory construction and the reduced cost of labor in the factory
versus that of high rise field labor. Units can be assembled in a factory while the structural frame
of the building is being constructed. Where stick systems require multiple steps to erect and seal
the wall, unitized walls arrive on the site completely assembled allowing the floors to be closed in
more quickly. Unitized systems also require less space on site for layout thus providing an
advantage for urban sites with space limitations.

Unitized systems generally rely on rain screen design principles and gaskets and/or the interlock
of mating frames for moisture protection at joints between adjacent modules. The interlocking
vertical mullions will typically have two interlocking legs. One leg will be in the plane just behind
the glazing pocket and the other at the interior face of the mullions. The interlocking leg in the
plane of the glazing pocket will be sealed by gaskets and is the primary line of defense against
water and air infiltration. More robust systems will also include a gasket at the interior interlock.
Systems whose connecting legs lock also compromise the ability of the system to accommodate
movement. Some unitized designs are sensitive to small irregularities in the spacing of adjacent
modules; for example, if the module joints are slightly out of tolerance, gaskets may not be
properly compressed and moisture protection may suffer. Robust designs include multiple lines
of defense, realistic tolerances and adjustability for erection of modules.

The four-way intersection refers to the location where four adjacent units meet. This is where
field labor must seal between adjacent units to achieve a weather tight wall. The interlocking legs
of the horizontal mullions are the most critical interface of a unitized system. Water that
infiltrates the interlocking vertical mullions drains to the interlocking horizontals that must collect
and divert this water to the exterior. The top horizontal mullion of a unit incorporates upstanding
vertical legs that mate with cavities in the bottom horizontal of the unit above. These upstanding
legs have gaskets that seal against the walls of the bottom horizontal. Some designs provide one
upstanding leg that provides one line of defense against air and water infiltration. More robust
systems will provide two upstanding legs with gaskets on both legs. A splice plate or silicone

Alumco L.L.C Page 20

flashing that is installed at the top of the two adjacent units as they are erected on the building is
typically required.

The vertical mullions of unitized systems typically anchor to the slab edge as they pass by. The
stack joint is the horizontal joint where units from adjoining floors meet. Placing the stack joint at
the sill of the vision glass (typically 30" above the floor) will minimize the dimension of the vertical
mullions. This positioning utilizes the back span of the mullion above the anchoring point at the
slab to counteract the deflection of the mullion below the slab. Also placing the stack joint above
the floor provides a more convenient location for field workers to achieve the critical seal at the
four-way intersection.

While two story spans are feasible, the weight of the unit is doubled which may require increased
structural capacity to accommodate the increased load. Wind load bracing should be
incorporated at the single span height to avoid increasing the vertical mullion dimension to
accommodate the increased span. Steel can be added to a unitized system to increase its
spanning capability. However, unlike a stick system which has an integral hollow shape, the split
mullions must be allowed to move independently to accommodate the building movement thus
complicating the introduction of steel. Large units may also increase transportation costs from
the factory to the site and erection costs of placing the units on the building.

Thermally broken unitized systems are available, utilizing similar technology as that used in stick
curtain wall systems.

Logistical and Construction Administration Issues

The service life of even the most durable curtain wall may be shorter than that of durable
adjacent wall claddings such as stone or brick masonry. Therefore, the design of the curtain wall
and perimeter construction should permit curtain wall removal and replacement without
removing adjacent wall components that will remain.

The service life expectancy of components that are mated with the curtain wall into an assembly
should match the service life expectancy of the curtain wall itself. Require durable flashing
materials, non-corroding attachment hardware and fasteners, and moisture resistant materials in
regions subject to wetting.

Laboratory testing: For projects with a significant amount of custom curtain wall, require
laboratory testing of a mock-up curtain wall prior to finalizing project shop drawings. Have a
curtain wall consultant present to document mock-up curtain wall construction and verify mock-
up performance. Specify that laboratory tests are to be conducted at an AAMA Accredited
Laboratory facility.

Field Mock-up: For all curtain walls, stock or custom, require construction and testing of a field
mock-up representative of the wall/window assembly. This is best scheduled prior to the release
of shop drawings for window production, so that there is an opportunity to make design changes

Alumco L.L.C Page 21

based on the test performance of the field mock-up. Specify that field tests be conducted by an
independent third party agency accredited by AAMA.

Field testing of curtain walls: Require the field testing of curtain walls for air infiltration and water
penetration resistance, for quality assurance of curtain wall fabrication and installation. Require
multiple tests with the first test on initial installations and later tests at approximately 35%, 70%
and at final completion to catch problems early and to verify continued workmanship quality.
Require additional testing to be performed if initial tests fail.

Shop drawing coordination: Require curtain wall installation shop drawings showing all adjacent
construction and related work, including flashings, attachments, interior finishes, and indicating
sequencing of the work.

Curtain wall systems, especially unitized systems, require expertise on the part of the building
designer, the manufacturer, the fabricator, and the installer. For all but the simplest of systems,
the designer should consider engaging an outside consultant, if such expertise is not available on
the staff.

Alumco L.L.C Page 22

DETAILS

Typical Elevation—Stick-Built Curtain Wall-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 1)

This elevation shows a typical stick-built curtain wall set in front of Slabs.

• Elevation includes splice joints to accommodate thermal movement of the curtain wall
frame.

Alumco L.L.C Page 23

Curtain Wall Isometric—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 2)

Alumco L.L.C Page 24

Curtain Wall Section—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 3)

• Locate exterior perimeter sealant joints behind trim cover to prevent water inside trim cover
from bypassing the exterior sealant joint.

Alumco L.L.C Page 25

Assembly Details—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 9)

Alumco L.L.C Page 26

Assembly Details—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 10)

Alumco L.L.C Page 27

Assembly Details—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 11)

Assembly Details—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 12)

Alumco L.L.C Page 28

Assembly Details—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 11)

Alumco L.L.C Page 29

Brackets—Stick-Built System-Pressure Equalized-Outside Glazed (Figure S – 11)

Alumco L.L.C Page 30

Isometric of System Assembly Unitized Curtain Wall System (Figure U–1)

This elevation shows a typical unitized curtain wall assembly hung from the edge of the floor slab.

• Differential movement between curtain wall units is accommodated at the vertical and
horizontal unit joints.
• The unit shown is composed of vision glazing and a glazed spandrel shadow box with an
insulated back pan.

EXTERNAL VIEW

INTERNAL VIEW

Alumco L.L.C Page 31

Isometric of Open Stack Joint Unitized Curtain Wall System (Figure U–2)

• A continuous vertical gasket provides the primary weather seal at the pressure equalized
rain screen zone of the assembly.
• Foam glazing tape weather seal is discontinuous at horizontal panel joints to achieve
pressure equalization between weather and air seals at vertical unit joints.
• A splice cover is applied over the horizontal stack joint between units to provide continuous
waterproofing behind and below the pressure equalized wet zone of the vertical stack joint.
• The units are connected with a field applied splice sleeve that contains an index clip to align
the next unit above the joint horizontally as it is being set.

Alumco L.L.C Page 32

Isometric of Completed Stack Joint Unitized Curtain Wall System (Figure U–3)

• Glazing pocket weeps are protected from wind-driven rain and pressure by a glazing trim
cover containing weep slots in the bottom which are offset from the sill glazing pocket weep
slots and the glazing setting blocks at glazing panel quarter points.
• The primary air and water seal at the stack joint should have sufficient height and drainage
to prevent water head from overtopping the gaskets. Gasket height should correspond to the
curtain wall design pressure.
• Exterior cover splice sleeves are installed at the face of the stack joint during unit field
installation.

Alumco L.L.C Page 33

EMERGING ISSUES

"Smart" Curtain Walls, like smart windows, control visible light transmittance by employing electro
chromic or photo chromic glass coatings; Double-skin systems, which employ a ventilated space
between the inner and outer walls are rare in the U.S., but have been constructed in Europe and
Asia where energy costs are much higher. Similar in concept to air-flow windows, the ventilated
space is intended to conserve energy by modulating the temperature conditions inboard of the
curtain wall. During the heating season, the space acts as a buffer between the exterior and
interior, and can be used to temper outdoor supply air. During the cooling season, warm interior
air is exhausted into the space. There is currently discussion among building science experts
that, at least for cold climates, a less expensive way of achieving energy savings might be
through the use of curtain walls with high (over R-6) insulating values. Point-supported glass,
structural glass mullions and use of tension structures are recent technologies.

Alumco L.L.C Page 34

RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

Curtain Wall Design and Selection

• AAMA Aluminum Curtain Wall Design Guide Manual

Thermal Performance

• AAMA 1503 Voluntary Standards for Thermal Transmittance and Performance

• AAMA 501.5 Test Method for Thermal Cycling of Exterior Walls
• NFRC 100 Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product U-Factors

Solar Heat Gain Coefficient

• NFRC 200 Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
and Visible Transmittance at Normal Incidence

Solar Optical Properties

• NFRC 300 Test Method for Determining the Solar Optical Properties of Glazing Materials
and Systems (PDF 308 KB, 16 pgs)

Air Infiltration

• AAMA 501 Methods of Test for Exterior Walls

• ASTM E283 (laboratory)
• ASTM E783 (field)
• NFRC 400 Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product Air Leakage

Water Penetration Resistance

• AAMA 501.1 Methods of Tests for Exterior Walls - Dynamic Test (laboratory)
• AAMA 501.2 Methods of Tests for Exterior Walls - Hose Test (field)
• ASTM E331 (laboratory)
• ASTM E547 (laboratory)
• ASTM E1105 (field)

Condensation Resistance Factor

• AAMA 1503.1 Voluntary Test Method for Thermal Transmittance and Condensation
Resistance of Windows, Doors, and Glazed Wall Sections
• NFRC 500 Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product Condensation Resistance
Values (PDF 256 KB, 16 pgs)

Alumco L.L.C Page 35

Seismic Loads

• AAMA 501.4 & 501.6 Recommended Static Test Method for Evaluating Curtain Wall and
Storefront Systems Subjected to Seismic and Wind Induced Interstory Drifts and
Recommended Dynamic Test Method For Determining the Seismic Drift Causing Glass
Fallout from a Wall System

Structural Uniform Loading by Static Pressure

• ASTM E 330 (laboratory)

Acoustical Performance

• AAMA 1801 Voluntary Specifications for Acoustical Ratings

Anodized Coatings

• AAMA 609 Cleaning and Maintenance Guide

• AAMA 610 Cleaning and Maintenance Guide
• AAMA 611 Voluntary Specification for Anodized Architectural Aluminum

High Performance Organic Coatings

• AAMA 2604 Voluntary Specification for High Performance Organic Coatings on Aluminum
Extrusions and Panels

Alumco L.L.C Page 36

 CHOOSING BETWEEN STICK and UNITIZED CURTAINWALL SYSTEMS

Selection Criteria Stick Curtain wall Unitized Curtain wall

Project Size Small Large

Complex
Monolithic
Wall Configuration (Many changes in plane, e.g.,
(Large expanses of flat wall)
soffits corners etc )

Joint Pattern Random Uniform horizontal sill line

Glazing Field Factory

Inter-locking frames
Inter-story Movements Very limited
accommodate movements

Controlled factory
Quality Control Subject to site variables (Both environment and
conditions equipment)

Can be cut-to-fit in the Field

Modification Pre-engineered

Sealing Subject to site variables Minimal field sealing

High
Field Labour Cost (Many parts to track and Low Field Labour Duration Slow
assemble)

Set from the interior

Access and Safety Exterior access required
(Exterior optional)

Alumco L.L.C Page 37

PRO’S AND CON’S OF STICK AND UNITIZED SYSTEM

STICK SYSTEM

Pros

™ Great Flexibility
™ Site Modification is possible

Cons

™ Difficulties in quality control

™ Relies heavily on site workmanship
™ Requires different trades men
™ Difficult to accommodate building movements
™ Impossible to control water drainage to individual floor
™ Requires external access (scaffolding / gondolas)
™ Too many loose parts and component on site
™ More storage space and longer storage time on site

UNITIZED SYSTEM

Pros

™ Units are assembled & glazed under controlled shop conditions.

™ Full pressure equalization drainage system at each floor
™ Accommodates building movements
™ Minimizes site operations
™ Usually does not require external access
™ Shortens Construction Duration
™ Enables other subsequent internal trades to commence works much earlier.

Cons

™ Not Advisable for Non Typical and Complicated facades

™ Not advisable for Large Slab Spans

Alumco L.L.C Page 38