IGCSE EDEXCEL

GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 5:
ECOSYSTEMS AND
RURAL
ENVIRONMENTS

EDEXCEL IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (9-1)

ECOSYSTEMS AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS
BY MS. KITAKA CAROLINE pg. 1
INTRODUCTION
Ecosystem-is a group or community composed of living and non-living things and their
interactions with each other.
They can be natural as well as artificial. Every ecosystem has two components, namely,
biotic components and abiotic components.
Biotic components refer to all living organisms in ecology while Abiotic refers to the non-
living things.
Biosphere-The parts of the earth occupied by the living organisms
Biodiversity-the number and variety of living species found in a given area or ecosystem.
Biodiversity maybe broken down into major divisions called Biomes
Biomes are the major regional groupings of plants and animals discernible at a global scale.
It is a basic working unit or system of nature
There are 11biomes all together

EDEXCEL IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (9-1)

ECOSYSTEMS AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS
BY MS. KITAKA CAROLINE pg. 2
 Tundra  Deciduous forest  Hot desert
 Tropical rainforest  Temperate grassland  Cold desert
 Polar  Mediterranean  Mountain
 Savanna  Coniferous forest
Their distribution patterns are strongly correlated with regional climate patterns and
identified according to the climax vegetation type.
The biome concept embraces the idea of community, of interaction among vegetation,
animal populations, and soil.
A biome (biotic area) is a major region of distinctive plant and animal groups well
adapted to the physical environment of its distribution area.
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BIOMES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
The distribution of these 11 biomes depends on the climate. Two key factors affect their
distribution; Temperature and Rainfall/Precipitation (moisture)
Temperature- Extreme hot and cold cannot support life easily, a balance is needed.
Precipitation- Constant steady rainfall will support plants and animals, but extreme
rainfall patterns could mean it is too wet or too dry.
Soil Type- If soil is deep it will have a lot of nutrients and can therefore support many
plants, whereas shallow soil has fewer nutrients and not as many plants will be able to
grow.
Altitude and latitude- The higher up you go the colder it is, whereas the lower you go
the more warmer it is. For example, deserts are common in North Africa and central
Australia, whereas much of northern Russia and Canada has a large belt of tundra.
Also, the large mountain ranges of the Andes, Himalayas and Rockies affect the patterns
with tundra and taiga common at high altitude.
Sunlight hours- Sunlight is needed for plants to grow so long sunlight hours is best.

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1. Tropical forests
Climate- They occur where climate is warm and humid
High temperatures and heavy rainfall
Location- Along the equator or close to it
Characteristics: Forest is evergreen in appearance
Vegetation grows in distinct layers
Trees have straight tree trunks and branchless on lower parts
Large buttress roots for support
Leaves have drip tips to shed the heavy rainfall

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They are over 1000 species of trees

Example: The largest Tropical rainforest occurs in the Amazon basin, South America
2. Savanna
Climate- Combination of high temperatures and little precipitation
Location- Along and close the equator but where the climate is much drier
Characteristics: Scattered bushes and grasses
Forest fires are common

Example; It is most extensive in Africa

3. Coniferous/Boreal forests/Taiga
Climate- They have a cool climate with moderate rainfall.
Corresponds with regions of subarctic and cold continental climate

Location: The boreal forest is restricted to the northern hemisphere and concentrated
more on North America and Eurasia
Characteristics: Containing evergreen trees,
Needle like leaves

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Example; Found in Scandinavia, Russia and Canada
4. Mediterranean
Climate; Associated with distinctive winter climate and drought summers
Location: It occurs roughly between 30° and 40° latitude on the west coasts of
continents
Characteristics: It is consists of small trees, low scrub and grassland
It is characterized by shrubs

Example; Europe, North Africa, Asia and around the Mediterranean Sea
5. Deciduous forest
Climate- The rainfall is high, between 500-1,500 mm a year.
The temperatures remain on average above 0°C even in the winter.
The summer temperatures average between 25-20°C.
Associated with warmer continental and humid subtropical climates (Low winters)

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Location: Temperate deciduous forests are found between 40° and 60° north and
south of the equator.
Characteristics: They have broad leaves
They shed their leaves during dry season
Example- Found in western and central Europe; eastern Asia, including Korea and
Japan; and eastern North America.

6. Temperate grassland
Climate- They are located in colder climate regions and receive less precipitation on
average than savannas.
Temperatures in temperate grasslands vary according to the season.
Location- Temperate grasslands can be found in various regions north and south of
the equator including Argentina, Australia, and central North America.
Characteristics: Temperate grasslands are areas of open grassy plains that are sparsely
populated with trees.
 Various names of temperate grasslands include pampas, downs, and
veldts.
 Temperate grasslands are home to many large and small herbivores.
 Temperatures vary with seasons with tornadoes, blizzards, and fires
occurring in many temperate grassland regions.

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Example- Argentina – pampas, Australia – downs, Central North America - plains and
prairies, Hungary – puszta, New Zealand – downs, Russia – steppes, South Africa - veldts

7. Desert
Climate- The climate of a desert is hot and dry.
The main reason for this hot climate is that deserts are tropical biomes, and exposed to
virtually direct sunlight.
The amount of rain in the desert varies slightly from desert to desert, but on average,
desert rainfall measures about 1 inch per year.
Location: It occurs within the tropic with a few parts outside the tropics
Characteristics: Lack vegetation due to lack of rainfall

Baja, Mexico desert; Desert in Uluru National Park, Australia; Desert near the
Kofa Mountains, Arizona
Other Examples- Sahara desert, Namib, Atacama and Gobi deserts.

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8. Tundra
Climate- Experiences long and bitterly/extremely cold winters
Strong winds and small amounts of precipitation not favorable for plant growth.
Location- Stretches around North and South Pole
Characteristics: Vegetation is typically stunted and grows close to the ground.
Grasses, mosses and lichens are most common
Limited numbers of plants and animals able to survive there

Example: On the Arctic Ocean border lands of North America and Eurasia, and along
the margins of Greenland.
Though nearly exclusive to the Northern Hemisphere, it can be found on peninsular land
of Antarctica.
9. Highland/Mountain
Climate- Experiences same climate to Tundra due to decrease in altitude
Much of the precipitation falls as snow
Location- Occurs in the high mountains of the world
Characteristics: With increasing height, temperature, pressure and humidity
decreases.

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Example- Rockies of North America, the Andes of South America, the Himalayas
The map below shows most of the world Biomes and their distribution.

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Q. Study Figure 2c in the Resource Booklet. Analyse the reasons for the
distribution of the world’s biomes. (8)
 Biomes are large scale or global scale ecosystem units. Figure 2c shows the overall
distribution of the world’s biomes is largely controlled by latitude
 From the diagram above, it can be seen that there are also more local effects of
altitude or continentality that disrupt the pattern of vegetation.
 It also shows that deserts for example are common in North Africa and central
Australia, whereas much of northern Russia and Canada has a large belt of tundra.
 The large mountain ranges of the Andes, Himalayas and Rockies affect the patterns
with tundra and taiga common at high altitude.
 Climate is the most important factor (precipitation and temperatures) in controlling
the distribution in the diagram.
 Also, there is a complex relationship between soils, climate and vegetation which
affect this overall distribution pattern; for example climates with seasonal rainfall
may have different biomes compared to those with more year round precipitation.
 The pattern of biomes can be interrupted locally by people, e.g. agricultural systems
which can modify the vegetation, although the diagram is unable to show these local
scale effects.
5.2THE GOODS AND SERVICES OF ECOSYSTEM

Many of the ecosystems offer resources and opportunities which people exploit. These
resources are referred to as Goods and services of the ecosystem.
GOODS SERVICES
Timber Tourism
Food Health services
Energy Natural protection
Water resources Climate regulation

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An ecosystem consists of living organisms (plants and animals) and their physical
environment (Sunlight, air, water, rock and soil) which are linked together.

Like all open systems, ecosystems involve inputs, internal flows and outputs of energy.

The greatest threat to the wellbeing and harmony of ecosystems comes form humans e.g
through clearance of land to create farmland.
Many ecosystems offer resources and opportunities(Goods and services) which people
exploit .
They may be thought as ecosystem outputs along with other outputs.
Goods are material things or products that can be taken directly from the ecosystem and
put to use. Example include:
Timber and wood
Services are the long term benefits that people can gain from ecosystems.
Example; Mangroves provide coastal protection in tropical areas
Trees remove carbondioxide from the air we breath

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In summary, Ecosystems provide four broad types of services
 Provisioning- Supplying basic resources such as renewable energy, Timber, crops,
food and water
 Regulating-Controlling climate (Temperature and humidity) through the carbon
cycle and disease, flood control, pollination and water purification.
 Supporting-Such as biodiversity, soil formation, nutrient cycling and the water cycle
 Cultural-such as the tourism, scenery, recreational and spiritual benefits provided by
an ecosystem

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Q: Analyse how exploiting natural ecosystems can affect their goods and services.
(8)
The diagram shows that there are 4 types of goods and services: regulating, cultural,
supporting and provisioning

• On Figure 2c, it can be seen that there is no hierarchy of goods and services; all are
positioned equally within the triangle
• Figure 2c shows that each of the main goods and services contains a number of sub-
ideas and linked systems related to the overarching function.
The goods and services they provide are vital to sustaining well-being, and to future
economic and social development.
• All goods and services are important, but their significance will vary both spatially and
temporally, depending on a range of factors.
• There is a complex relationship between soils, climate and vegetation which affect this
overall pattern of goods and services provided by a given biome or ecosystem; for
example biomes with ample rainfall and warm temperatures may have high productivity
and a larger amount of provisioning.
The pattern of biomes can be interrupted locally by people, e.g. agricultural systems
which can modify the vegetation, although this map (Figure 2c) is unable to directly
show these local scale effects. This can result is modification of goods and services.

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Q: Explain two reasons why a growth in tourism has had negative impacts on rural
environments.
Demand for new hotels in sensitive ecosystems often results in habitat degradation.
• Footpath erosion due to large volumes of walkers trampling on vegetation.
• Littering has increased creating visual pollution.
• Traffic congestion as some country roads are not made to withstand large volumes of
traffic.
• Conflict between tourists and local residents as the tourist might be parking on
pavements/creating noise pollution.
• Increased levels of air pollution due to the increased volume of vehicles coming into the
area.
• Price increases in local shops as shopkeepers take advantage of tourists willing to pay
more for goods.

5.3 How humans use, modify and change ecosystems and rural environments to
obtain food through farming systems;
Human exploit the goods and services of the ecosystem for their benefits. This
exploitation of the resources (Goods and services) has negative impacts.
 Arable and pastoral farming
 Commercial and subsistence
 Intensive and extensive.
1. Arable/pastoral farming
 Arable farming-This is the growing of crops. These farms grow crops that are
harvested from the ground to be eaten or sold .e.g. potatoes and carrots.
 Pastoral farming-It involves farms that rear animals - either for animal by-products
such as milk, eggs or wool, or for meat.
 Both types involve ecosystem clearance and change.

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2. Commercial/ subsistence farming
 Subsistence farming is when crops and animals are produced by a farmer to feed
their family, rather than to take to market while commercial farming is when
crops and animals are produced to sell at market for a profit.
 The impact of subsistence farming on ecosystem may just about tolerable;
however, large areas are obliterated by commercial farming because of its scale, its
modern and powerful technologies (mechanization, irrigation, GM crops, disease
controls) and the pressure to maximize profits.
 Subsistence farming is when crops and animals are produced by a farmer to feed
their family, rather than to take to market.



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

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 Commercial farming is when crops and animals are produced to sell at market for a
profit.
3. Intensive/extensive farming
 Intensive farming is where a large amount of produce is generated from a
relatively small area of land.
 It involves concentration of inputs that artificial ecosystem have created, e.g.
market gardening.
Intensive farming is where a large amount of produce is generated from a
relatively small area of land. Inputs will be high to achieve a high yield per hectare.
Inputs could be fertilizers, machines or labour. There are relatively high inputs and
outputs per hectare of land.
They have the following features:
 Normally a smaller farm
 Relatively high inputs per hectare.
 Relatively high number of workers per hectare.
 Relatively high yields per hectare.
 Extensive farming is where a relatively small amount of produce is generated
from a large area of farmland for example, hill sheep farming.

Extensive farming is where a relatively small amount of produce is generated from

a large area of farmland. There are relatively few inputs (and possibly outputs) per
hectare of land.
Have the following features:
 Normally a larger farm
 Relatively few inputs per hectare
 Relatively few workers per hectare
 Relatively low yields per hectare
 Mixed farming-It involves farms that grow crops and rear animals.

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THE FARM AS A SYSTEM

Farming is an industry and it operates like other industries.

It has inputs into the farm, processes which take place on the farm and outputs
from the farm.

1. INPUTS

They can be divided into two:

Human Inputs:

Things that are built or made by humans and added to a farm.

 Labour (workers)
 Machinery (tractors, combine harvesters, etc.)
 Buildings (barns, silos)
 Seed to grow crops
 Animal feed
 Fertilizers and pesticides
 Calves, Chicks, piglets, etc. (small animals bought to rear and later sell)
Physical Inputs:
Natural things that are either found on a farm or are added to a farm

 Soil: If soil is fertile then arable farming is likely to take place, if it is less fertile
and can only support grass then pastoral farming is likely to take place.
 Precipitation: Water that helps water the crops.
 Sun: Energy to help plants and animals to grow.
 Alluvium: This is mineral and nutrient rich sediment (load) that is transported
by rivers and deposited on floodplains in times of flood.
 Flood water: Floods not only bring alluvium but also water to keep the ground
moist.

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  Relief: If land is flat then it is easier for arable farming to take place. If land is
hilly then pastoral farming is more likely to take place.
 Drainage: It is important that fields are well drained so they are not
permanently flooded. Apart from rice most crops and animals can't survive
being permanently submerged
PROCESSES:
 The events that take place on a farm to turn inputs into outputs.
 Shearing: The removing of wool from animals, normally sheep.
 Ploughing: Turning over the land and preparing it for planting seeds.
 Fertilizing: Adding chemicals to the soil to try and make it more fertile.
 Weeding: Removing alien plants (plants other than the crops your are
growing) from crop fields.
 Irrigating: Watering the land.
 Cultivating: To care for and grow crops.
 Harvesting: The collection of crops at the end of the growing season.
 Slaughtering: The killing of animals once they have reached maturity and are
ready to sell.
 Planting: Putting seeds into the ground.
OUTPUTS:
 Things that are produced on a farm and are often sold
 Profits
 Meat products (lamb, beef, chicken, pork)
 Wool (normally from sheep)
 Milk (normally from cows)
 Waste e.g. animal excrement
 Methane (mainly from cows)
 Crops (corn, wheat, carrots, potatoes, etc.)

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NB//Tropical rainforest is the top damaged biome by the human activities
Approximately half of the global tropical rainforest has been cleared for timber and other uses.
Q; Study the map below then use it to analyze the reasons for the increase and decrease in size of
agricultural areas. (8)
In general, there is a broad split between areas with a decrease in agricultural area in developed countries
and an increase in agricultural area in developing/emerging countries.
 The continents of Africa and South America have the largest areas that have seen an increase in
agricultural land. However, there are some countries, e.g. South Africa/Namibia in Africa and
Colombia/Ecuador in South America, which have had a decrease in agricultural land area.
 The majority of North America and Europe have seen a decrease in agricultural land area. However, there
are some small pockets in these continents, e.g. the Republic of Ireland, where there has actually been an
increase in agricultural land area.
 Several countries in South America, e.g. Bolivia/Peru, Africa, e.g. Botswana/Egypt, and Asia, e.g. North
Korea/Afghanistan, have had little change in the amount of land used for agriculture.
 Some areas in the world are experiencing a rapid growth in their population, largely due to a high rate of
natural increase. This puts pressure on the food supply and may prompt stakeholders to increase the
amount of agricultural land area to ensure that supply meets demand.
 Some areas of the world may have experienced an increase in wars, natural hazards and/or diseases in
recent years, such as AIDS and other epidemics, which raise the death rate. This means that there are
fewer older people to work in the fields to produce food and, therefore, the land area used for agriculture
could be reduced.
 Environmental degradation may have increased in some areas, which reduces the amount of available
land for agriculture. As people seek to produce food and earn income from the land, more vulnerable land
is used. The processes of desertification and deforestation mean that the environment degrades so that it
is no longer suitable for agriculture.
 Increase in globalisation/tourism in some rural environments brings money into the area and may help
improve local infrastructure, which may allow previously unused land to be used for agricultural
purposes.
 Increased deforestation in some parts of the world have increased the amount of land available for
farming.
 As an area becomes more developed, the use, availability and affordability of technology, e.g. machinery,
genetically-modified (GM) crops, fertilisers, irrigation systems, herbicides and pesticides, increases and
so does the amount of land that can be used for agriculture.

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 Possible impacts of climate change, e.g. temperature/rainfall, may increase or decrease the land area in a
region that is used for agriculture.

CASE STUDY; TROPICAL RAINFOREST IN BRAZIL-USES AND IMPACTS

Brazil has about quarter of the world’s rainforest within its borders.
It is estimated that over 15% of Brazil’s rainforest was lost between 1970 and 2015.
USES BEING MADE OF THE RAINFOREST
Huge areas have been and still being cleared for;
 Commercial logging-Hardwoods fetch high prices and this makes deforestation
profitable. This does not necessarily mean clear felling.
Selective logging and agro forestry are more sustainable ways of exploiting timber.
There are other forest resources which are harvested such as medicinal plants, fruits
and nuts.

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 Pasture for cattle rearing (Cattle ranching) - It is the major cause of deforestation
accounting for approximately 80% of deforestation. The cleared land is sown with
grasses to create pasture
 Arable land for growing biofuels-About 10% of the forest is being cleared to make
way for huge plantations where crops such as soybeans, palm oil and sugarcane are
grown for conversion into biofuels. Other crops include bananas, pineapples, tea and
coffee.
 Building land for settlements- Indigenous people have lived in the forest for
centuries. They have a traditional way of life that is closely geared to the resources of
the forests. Over a period of many years, they have;
 Cut wood to burn as fuel
 Used timber to build their dwellings
 Harvested fruits and nuts
 Used plants for the treatment of illnesses
 Cleared small areas of forest for wood production.
 Road construction-Roads are needed to bring farm equipment and transport
products to market. Building new roads means cutting through the forest.

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IMPACTS OF DEFORESTATION (Exploitation of ecosystems)
Deforestation has a whole range of disastrous consequences including:
 Global warming
 Land degradation and Soil erosion
 Climate change
 Displacement of the indigenous people
 Pollution of rivers
 Loss of biodiversity
1. Global warming
 Trees in tropical rainforests absorb carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Cutting down
of trees means more carbon dioxide remains in the air.
 Carbon dioxide is a green house gas that allows sun’s rays to come through the
atmosphere; however, it does not allow heat from the earth to escape from the
atmosphere. This is called the Green house effect.
 It is a cause of global warming that is causing the survival of the human race in the
world.

2. Land degradation and Soil erosion

 As soon as any part of the forest cover is cleared, the nutrient cycle is broken. The thin
topsoil is quickly removed by heavy rainfall.
 Bare slopes are prone to soil erosion. Once the topsoil has been removed, plants don’t
easily grow.
 It also leads to silting of the rivers.
 Grazing and plantations do little or nothing to keep the soil fertile.
 It is this decline in soil fertility that leads to pastures and plantations being
abandoned so more areas of rainforest are cleared.

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3. Local climate change
 Deforestation disrupts the water cycle. With cutting down of trees, transpiration is
reduced and so is the return of moisture to the atmosphere.
 The local climate becomes drier and the local climate becomes warmer.
 The combination of increasing dryness and rising temperatures affects people and
their activities such as farming through drought and famine.
Trees also provide the required shade that keeps the soil moist. This leads to the
imbalance in the atmospheric temperature further making conditions for the ecology
difficult.
4. Displacement of the indigenous people
 For centuries, the indigenous people traditional way of life is closely linked to the
resources of the tropical rainforest. They have been gradually forced out of their
homelands by:
 Logging
 Mining
 Creation of ranches, plantations and reservoirs
 Construction of roads and settlements for incomers
 Many of these displaced people have ended up in towns and cities. Few have adjusted
to this very different environment. Addiction to drugs and alcohol has been common.
Many have also died young.
5. Pollution of rivers
Gold mining not only causes deforestation. The mercury used to separate the gold is
allowed to enter the rivers.
Fish and other aquatic animals are poisoned as well as people living in nearby towns.
Rivers also get polluted by soil erosion.

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6. Loss of biodiversity
More than two thirds of the world plant species are found in the tropical rainforests.
They also contain about half of the worlds known animal species (Birds, mammals,
reptiles and insects)
If the rainforest is cleared:
Global biodiversity will be much reduced
Individual species will become endangered and possibly extinct

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 5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL ENVIRONMENTS
Landscape, climate, settlement, population, land use, employment, accessibility,
management (development or conservation).
A rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.

Landscap Settlement
e

Conservatio
n
Population
Density RURAL
ENVIRONMEN
T

Inaccessibilit
Employmen y
t Land use
1. Landscape
The landscape of rural area is generally scattered settlements separated by open spaces,
mainly green spaces given over farming.
Agriculture is the fundamental occupation of the rural people and forms the basis of
rural economy.
A farmer has to perform various agricultural activities for which he needs the
cooperation of other members. Usually, these members are from his family. Thus, the
members of the entire family share agricultural activities.
2. Settlement
 Rural areas settlement pattern are typically made up of villages, hamlets and
farmsteads.
 Settlements are separated from each other by unsettled tracts that are either farmed
or left in fairly natural state.

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 3. Population Density
 Rural areas have relatively low population compared with the high densities of urban
environments.
 The village communities are smaller in area than the urban communities.
 As the village communities are small, the population is also low.
 As the density of population is low, the people have intimate relationships and face-
to-face contacts with each other.
 In a village, everyone knows everyone. Population density within them can be as high
as in many towns and cities high mean densities can occur in rural countries such as
Bangladesh
4. Conservation.
 A change is taking place in the way rural environments are valued, the rise in tourism
and leisure is an example.
 People are realizing that rural areas are important, as rural areas and wildlife are
important to maintain the world's biodiversity and it also important for reducing
global warming.
 Nowadays, people focus on managing the availability of sufficient water for drinking,
industry and agriculture
5. Inaccessibility
 Most of rural areas are inaccessible and thus hindering development in these areas.
 This is probably due to presence of more mountainous, arid and forested regions.
 The improvement of these roads is allowing the rural environment to feature more in
the provision of leisure and tourism.
6. Employment
 Most jobs in rural areas belong to primary sector. Farming and food production are
the most important activities.
 Other jobs include Fishing, Forestry and Mining. Generally, the jobs are poorly paid
thus the reason why many people move to urban areas to look for good paying jobs.

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 7. Land use
 Most rural areas are mountainous, more forested and more arid regions and therefore
inaccessible, probably the reason for underdevelopment in these areas. However the
situation is changing.
 The improvement of rural environments is allowing the rural environment to feature
more in the provision of leisure and tourism.
8. Development management
 Rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of
rural poor.
 It is a process, which aims at improving the well being and self realization of people
living outside the urbanized areas through collective process.
 Rural Development is all about bringing change among rural community through
improvement in producing of crops and animals living condition, to improve health,
village communication and education condition.

CASE STUDY OF RURAL ENVIRONMENTS IN A DEVELOPED COUNTRY-UK

Generally, rural areas in the UK that are close to major centres of population such as
towns and cities have experienced population growth.
These areas are known as accessible rural as they are well connected to cities via roads
and other transport links.
This allows for counter-urbanization, where people move to rural areas to improve
their quality of life but COMMUTE to cities for their jobs.

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 RURAL AREAS CHANGE OVER TIME.

These changes are caused by:

1. Economic factors - tourism income, farming profitability, primary sector jobs

2. Environmental factors - land use, pollution, conservation
3. Social factors - population change and migration, leisure time, retirement population

FACTORS LEADING TO RURAL CHANGES IN A DEVELOPED COUNTRY

a) Rural isolation
It is characterized by an absence of social interactions, social support structures and
engagement with wider community activities or structures.
More commonly isolation is involuntary, created or imposed through marginalization
b) Decline in farm employment
Due to rise in countries level of development and mechanization, there is decline in
primary sector. This has led to shift from primary to secondary to tertiary sectors of
production. Farming is one of the main activities in primary sector.
c) Tourist pressures,

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This refers to increased pressure on different destinations in rural areas due
to tourism growth.
It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion,
increased pollution, discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss, increased pressure on
endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires.
It often puts a strain on water resources, and it can force local populations to compete
for the use of critical resources.
d) Sub-urbanisation,
Suburbanisation is the outward growth of urban development which may engulf
surrounding villages and towns into a larger urban agglomeration.
Essentially it is a part of urbanisation, in that it increases the proportion of people that
live in towns and cities in comparison to those in rural areas.
As suburbs grow they attract both people from rural areas and people from Inner city
and CBD areas, who are attracted by the greater amount of space within the suburb.
Suburbanisation results in the physical spreading of a city into surrounding countryside
areas, known as urban sprawl, and this puts pressure on greenfield sites and on nature.
e) Counter-urbanisation.
Counter-urbanisation is when large numbers of people move from urban areas into
surrounding countryside or rural areas due to pull factors in rural areas and push
factors in rural areas.
Pull factors can also play a role.
People want a better quality of life and they want to be able to live in a clean and quiet
area. An area without air and noise pollution from heavy industries, the crime of urban
environments and the lack of opportunities found in some parts of cities.
They also aspire to having larger houses with more land for cheaper prices compared to
the large towns and cities.
f) The negative multiplier effect.

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Multiplier effect refers to-An impact / factor which causes a bad / negative income on
the overall economy of an area OR a problem that leads to problems occurring e.g.
depopulation or lowers development and investment.

Q; Explain two factors that have led to changes in rural areas in a named
developed country.
1. Some governments have incentivized change and particular land management e.g.
CAP supporting prices for some farmers.
2. Some governments and agencies have supported diversification by offering grants
and set-up costs this has allowed the farmer to change land practice through a
financial safety-net.
3. Farmers are paid to transform their landscape, e.g. there are government subsidies
available for managing woodland for conservation.
4. Some developers have been supported to set up new mineral extraction areas /
quarries which have facilitated through grants and planning restrictions.

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5.5 CASE STUDY; CHANGING AREAS OF THE UK
 The main changes in rural areas of HICs are related to the later phases of the
urbanization process. Four broad areas of rural area changes may be recognized.
These include:
a) The urban fringe.
b) The commuter belt
c) Accessible country side
d) Remote country side.

1. Urban fringe:
 This rural space literally found on the edge of a built up town or city and is where
town meets country. These areas are rural spaces that are eroded by the outward
spread of built up areas.
 The main change that takes place in this area is called suburbanization.
 This involves building of new homes usually in the form of large housing estates.
 These estates are often occupied by rural urban migrants or people who choose to
move out of the older built up areas.
 The main changes in rural areas of HIC are related to the later phases of the
urbanization process.
 The changes vary from place to place, mainly depending on the distance and
accessibility from large cities.

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2. The commuter belt.

 The commuter belt lies just outside of the urban fringes. The changes that occur
here are mainly due to arrival of commuters.
 These are mainly people who work in the nearby city and use its services.
 They are tempted to move here because of Cheaper and spacious housing,
the accessibility to their work place, the opinion that the commuter belt offers a
better quality life.
3. Accessible country side

 The accessible country side lies beyond the commuter belt but within the range of
urban cities.
 The three major changes taking place in this area is:
 Farming
 Recreation, leisure and tourism
 Retirement migration.

4. Remote country side

 The remote country side is the farthest from CBDs and it is almost totally rural and
the time consumed to reach CBDs from a remote country side is huge.
 The two most significant changes that take place are
a) Depopulation
b) Dramatic decline in Farming.

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Factors leading to rural Social and economic changes in developing country
The changes which are happening in rural areas in LEDCs are very important. This is
because the majority of the population lives in rural areas.
The countries which have the highest percentage of rural population are those which are
the poorest.
The land is used to feed the people both in towns and rural areas - LEDCs import less
food from other countries than MEDCs.
This means that changes in rural areas in LEDCs are important.
1. Population growth
The rate of natural increase is high in many areas. This puts pressure on the food supply.
This leads to malnutrition and starvation. It also encourages rural to urban migration.
2. Natural hazards and diseases
AIDS and other epidemics raise the death rate.
Wars also raise the death rate. This means that there are fewer older people to work on
the fields to produce food.
Famine and drought causing low farm productivity
3. Rural-urban migration
Rural push factors (such as low wages) and urban pull factors (such as better jobs) cause
rural to urban migration.
Positive results
 The migrants are able to send money home.
 With more money from the urban workers, school fees may be paid or livestock
bought.
Negative results
 It is often the young males who move - the remaining family may be less physically
able to carry out heavy tasks.
 With the absence of the young males, children may have to work on the farm,
rather than going to school.

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 4. Increasing globalization tourism
Some rural areas attract tourists. The Maasai Mara in Kenya is one area which attracts
tourists on safari.
This brings money into the area and may help improve local infrastructure. However the
money spent by tourists does not always go back to the local economy.
5. Counter urbanization
Counter-urbanisation is when large numbers of people move from urban areas into
surrounding countryside or rural areas due to pull factors in rural areas and push factors
in rural areas.
Pull factors can also play a role.
People want a better quality of life and they want to be able to live in a clean and quiet
area. An area without air and noise pollution from heavy industries, the crime of urban
environments and the lack of opportunities found in some parts of cities.
They also aspire to having larger houses with more land for cheaper prices compared to
the large towns and cities.
6. Mechanization of farming
Use of farm machineries has resulted in increase in farm production, efficiency and
productivity, yield of Land per Unit of area at a lower Cost of Work. It also increases
Farm Income.
7. Subsistence farming to cash crops
Land which was growing subsistence crops is turned into commercial agricultural land
for cash crops.
Positive impacts
 The country has a greater source of income.
 There are jobs generated for workers.
Negative impacts
 Less land is available to grow food to feed the local population.
 Water supplies may be used up on cash crops.

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  Fertiliser may enter the local water supply.
 Rates of soil erosion increase.
 Local ecosystems may be damaged
8. Environmental degradation

As people seek to gain food and income from the land, more vulnerable land is used. The
processes of desertification and deforestation mean the environment degrades.
Clearing forests, such as in the Amazon Rainforest, causes many problems such as soil
erosion and loss of the ecosystem.
5.7 THE DIVERSIFICATION OF FARMING AND FARMS.
Farm diversification is when a farm branches out from traditional farming by adding
new money making activities. This can be in place of or in addition to its traditional
farming pursuits.
CASE STUDY;FARM DIVERSIFIACTION IN THE UK
 Farming in UK today is a very different from what it was 200years ago.
 It accounts for 1% of GDP and 1% of employment.
 Statistics show that agricultural output has increased considerably due to:
 Mechanization
 Making larger farms
 Specializing in particular lines of farm produce
 Advances in farm technology such as use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides.
 As well as genetically modified crops and animals.
The table below shows the advantage and disadvantages of the GM crops
Advantages Disadvantages
Higher crop yields Possible contamination of other plants
Cheaper food Possible adverse impact on human health
Better quality food Expensive feedstock
Less use of herbicides Some crop plants do not produce seeds

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Farmers in UK can earn more money through the following ways:
a) Raising more income from farming activities
This involves;
1. Farm shop
These involve the farmer selling direct to the customers at the farm gate. It cuts out the
need for a wholesaler and retailer. Such shops often include a café or restaurant which
provides another outlet for the farms produce.
2. Organic farming
It is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as
fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent relies
upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, etc.

For health reasons, some people are concerned about the chemicals being used in
growing of crops and rearing of animals. This system is less productive however,
demand for organic produce is increasing in UK and some customers are prepared to pay
a little more for it.

3. Pick-your-own
Allowing customers to pick their own produce such as soft fruit and vegetables saves on
labour costs as well as costs of transport.
4. Novel products
This describes a range of unusual crops and livestock that can be grown in UK for
specialist markets.
They can range lavender and edible flowers to angora wool and ostrich meat.
5. B&B
A short stay on a working farm in a pleasant rural location is popular with holiday
making urban people. So, too, is paying to camp or caravan in a farm field.

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b) Putting their farm- its buildings and land to non-farming uses
1. Leisure and recreation
This might involve turning the farm into a shooting estate or modifying the fields for off-
road driving and mountain biking.
2. Redevelopment
Converting barns into housing, offices or industrial units, or using farm houses for
telecottaging in remote rural areas
3. Energy
Converting fields into wind or solar farms
Combination of these options can lead to achievement of better income.

Qsn: Suggest one piece of evidence from the photograph that shows this farm has
diversified.

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 The land-use has changed away from growing crops to one where there are lots of
tourists as this will likely be a more profitable use of the land
 Lots of visitors and families evident so this is the move away from using a farm
traditionally for just crops and livestock.
 Appears that barns (background) have been converted into spaces for visitors rather
than their likely original use as shelter for animals or storing machinery.
 An area which is now for public use with families which would not be likely in a farm
which had not diversified.
Qsn; Explain two reasons why some farmers are moving into diversification of
farming.
 To increase farm income by switching to an alternative system then more money can
be generated.
 Diversification can add value to farm products e.g. selling meat grown on the farm to
local markets / people.
 Farmers are paid to transform their landscape, e.g. there are government subsidies
available for managing woodland for conservation.
 Others such as growing different crops to maintain soil health, avoid risk from climate
change etc.
Qsn; State one way that farmers can diversify their farms to generate more income
 Changing the type of crop grown, e.g. a move towards GM crops or organic farming
 Changing the method of farming, e.g. a move away from nomadic to sedentary
 Extreme activities, e.g. zip wire, paintballing
 Farm shop/cafe/tea room
 Family/petting farm
 Camping/caravanning
 Livery/cattery/kennels.
5.8 SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVING
Sustainable living is related to the following aspects:

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a) Environmental aspect- It is the form of rural living that makes use of the
environment and its resources, but little damage to them. It ensures that the future
generations will be able to continue to live there.
The main aim is to achieve a harmony between people and the land i.e. the
environment.
b) Economic aspect- What is needed is economic activities that support the local
population and contribute to the regional or national economy. This could be by
subsistence farming and self sufficiency, or commercially by contributing products or
services to the regional or national economy.
c) Social aspect- A form of rural living that offers a good quality of life for all, not just a
few. It also involves physical services such as clean water supplies and sanitation,
social services such as education and health care and an unpolluted environment.
CASE STUDY; MAKING RURAL LIVING SUSTAINABLE IN CHINA
If the Chinas rural areas are to become sustainable, China has to?
 Improving the quality of life
 Retain labor in the countryside to work on the farms
 Increase the productivity of its agriculture in an environmentally-friendly way.
The commonly used ways to raise the output of food include:
 Government encouraging the amalgamation of farms into larger units.
 Set up crop rotation
 Grow GM crops due to their fast maturity
 Improve plant and animal breeding.
 Increase mechanization and modern farming techniques
 Increase use of fertilizers to increase yield of the crops
 Improve irrigation as a result of the frequent drought affecting the Chinese
agriculture. The South-North water transfer project was supposed to increase the
availability of irrigation water.
 Enlarge farm holdings
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  Increase use of pesticides and herbicides
China needs to help farming and its rural areas by :
 Providing better housing
 Ensuring a safe water supply by installing piped water and sewage systems.
 Proper sanitation
 Pollution control
 Diversifying ways of income through tourism and therefore eradicating poverty.
 Providing schools and health care
CASE STUDY; MAKING SUSTAINABLE LIVING IN KENYA
 In Kenya, in terms of improving agriculture, significant moves have been made:
 Horticulture (Growing of vegetables, fruits and flowers) it has become one of the
country’s most important export industry.
 It accounts for more than two thirds of total agricultural exports.
 It is the second leading developing country in supply of flowers in the world after
Columbia.
 75% of flowers are grown on large farms, mostly around Lake Naivasha and
transported to Europe markets by air.
 Soils around the lake are fertile and the lake provides water for irrigation.
 However, horticulture is facing challenges such as untreated sewage being discharged
into the lake from the rising population.
 Pesticides and fertilizers also run off and pollute the water.
 Food miles involved in transporting commodities to the major markets in Europe is
also a problem that Kenyan commercial horticulture is facing.
 To solve the problems in rural areas such as Poverty and food insecurity;
 Irrigations (though an expensive solution) have been set up.
 Provision of basic needs such as education, healthcare, housing and safe water to
improve the quality of rural living although lack of money is a major challenge
which is mainly caused by corruption.
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  Developed countries may also be willing to help particularly by improving soils
and raising crop yields.
 Providing services for foreign tourists can be source of income and employment.
In conclusion, the rural areas in both Kenya and China are still far from being
economically and environmentally sustainable. They lag behind urban areas in so many
ways as the chances of reducing rural-urban migration , a major factor in rural poverty ,
remain very slim.
5.9 MANAGING RURAL CHALLENGES
 For centuries, changes in rural areas jut happened.
 Decision makers are all those people affected by a particular challenge such as loss
of rural population or closure of rural services.
 The decision makers may vary in terms of how they see the challenge, and in terms of
their power to influence how the challenges and the problems are solved.
 Groups with different interests are known as stakeholders and mostly they are
government officials and businesses.
The role of different stakeholders/groups of people (national and local
government, IGOs, NGOs and local communities) in Kenya, China and UK in
managing the social, economic and environmental challenges
LEVEL KENYA CHINA UK
International  IGOs NONE EU
 World Bank Common Agricultural policy
 Organization for Economic Environmental directives
Co-operation and
Development (OECD)
 WHO
 NGOs
 Aid agencies
 Conservation organizations

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  Tour operators
 Agribusiness
National Government departments Governme Government
nt Departments
Departmen Voluntary organizations
ts National trust
English Heritage
RSPB
NFU
CLA
Local Farmers Local Local government:
communes  Planning controls services
Farmers Local communities;
 Farmers
 Land owners
 Tourist boards
1. INTERGOVERMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (IGOs)
These involve representatives from the member states.
Some organizations with particular interest in poor rural areas include:
 The world bank-It provides financial and technical help to countries to fight
poverty and promote development.
 The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). One of its priorities is that every child should have access to education.
 The world Health Organization (WHO) -is primarily concerned with promoting
healthcare and fighting diseases.
2. NON-GOVERMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
These are non-profit making, voluntary organizations that operate at a local, national
and international levels.
They are independent of government and often run as charities.

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 Examples include:
 Conservation organizations such as WWF World Wildlife Fund- involved in the
protection of wildlife and its habits.
 Friends of the earth- Involved in protection of the environment.
 Aid agencies such as Oxfam, WaterAid and Save the children-Helping to provide
basic services such as clean water, sanitation, schools and medical centers.
3. GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
 Governments have structures and ministries with particular responsibilities for what
goes on in rural areas.
 In the UK, it is the department for Environment food and rural affairs.
 In China, responsibility is divided in to two ministries, Agriculture and land and
resources.
 In Kenya, the departments of agriculture and livestock, commerce and tourism share
the responsibilities.

4. LOCAL COMMUNITIES
These are the people most affected by a change. In the community, some people support
development, others favor conservation and others fight change.
 In Kenya, the influence of international organizations may stronger than that of the
government departments because:
 Many of the poorest rural areas get various sorts of outside help, much of it in form
of technical help.
 Tourism and commercial farming are the two mainstays of the Kenyan economy;
both involve marketing o international customers.
 China is governed by communist regime (common ownership). In theory that should
mean that power and decision-making rest with the people in the local level.
However, most of the Chinese life is controlled by a highly centralized national
government.

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Clearly, there are many stakeholders at national and local levels that create a web of
different views and interests. While all these stakeholders should have their say, it does
mean that decision making can be a long and drawn-out process.
Q; For a named developing or emerging country, explain how two different groups
have managed challenges within the rural environment.
 A range of countries and challenges could be chosen, based on either increasing
production, switching to using “greener” approaches, or better soil management
etc, e.g. with policies and incentives.
 In rural China the government have promoted the use of solar panels to generate
electricity this is because they are environmentally low carbon and cheaper than
non-renewable energy.
 In the Vietnam Programme 133 has provided credit to farmers and this is linked to
local investment in infrastructure to help reduce poverty.
 In Vietnam the government has also paid for better rural health and education
services which have been aided by NGOs and have lifted some people out of
poverty.
 UNICEF helps children in Africa have a better quality of life by providing food and
shelter to some communities.
Qsn: For a named developing or emerging country, explain two ways economic
challenges are managed within rural environments.
 In many locations where there are foreign visitors, ecotourism has been promoted
by governments.
 This improves the quality of life for locals, with better employment opportunities,
and helps the money generated to stay in the local community.
 In many poorer rural areas of countries, such as Kenya, governments have
supported the introduction of commercial farming.

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  They have achieved this through special loans and financing schemes so that local
people can afford new land and have access to more money and appropriate
technology.
 Fair trade means that the producer receives a guaranteed and fair price for their
product regardless of the price on the world market.
 This has been used in Bangladesh, for example. This means the quality of life for
fair trade producers should improve, as well as the long-term prospects for their
children.

TEST ME

 Identify the meaning of the term NGO. (1)

 Define the term negative multiplier effect. (1)
 Identify the meaning of the term suburbanization. (1)
 Define the term GM crop. (1)
 Identify one of the goods provided by natural ecosystems. (1)
 State one way through which farmers can modify natural ecosystems to improve farm
system productivity (1)
 Explain two reasons why some farmers are moving into diversification of farming
(4)
 Identify one example of a global biome. (1)
 Identify one factor influencing the quality of rural life (1)
 Suggest two reasons for counter-urbanization (2)
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 Name one input of an ecosystem
 State two factors that influence the distribution of the global biomes (2)
 Identify one IGO that is particularly interested in rural areas (1)
 Explain two environmental impacts of deforestation (4)
 Explain one physical factor that could have influenced the type of farming shown in
Figure below. (1)

 Explain two reasons why a growth in tourism has had negative impacts on rural
environments. (4)
 Suggest one reason for the change in the percentage of subsistence farmers affected
by food shortages shown in Figure below. (3)

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
 For a named developing or emerging country, explain two ways economic challenges
are managed within rural environments. (4)
 Suggest reasons why the effects of natural hazards are often worse on rural
environments (4)
 Evaluate possible ways of halting the decline in remote areas (8)
 For a named country, suggest two possible ways of improving the sustainability of
rural areas (6)
 Evaluate the cost and the benefits of changing from subsistence to commercial
agriculture (8)
 For a named rural area, assess the parts played by different stakeholders (8)
 State two other types of rural or farm diversification. (2)
 Explain two factors that have led to changes in rural areas in a named developed
country. (4)

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 END

SUCCESS

IN THE

UNIT

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