MODULE 1: IRRIGATION
Definition of Irrigation
Irrigation is the process of artificially supplying water to land or soil to support
the growth of crops, maintain landscapes, and help in soil rehabilitation,
especially in regions that experience inadequate rainfall. It compensates for the
irregularity and unpredictability of natural precipitation. In agricultural practices,
irrigation is critical because many crops require a consistent and timely supply of
water to ensure healthy growth and optimum yield. Without sufficient irrigation,
it is impossible to cultivate crops successfully in arid or semi-arid areas.
Additionally, irrigation systems support horticulture, gardening, and the
cultivation of crops beyond traditional rainy seasons, enabling year-round
farming.
Benefits of Irrigation
The practice of irrigation brings numerous advantages:
• Increased Crop Production: Reliable water supply through irrigation
significantly boosts crop yields, ensuring food security for growing
populations.
• Multiple Cropping: Farmers can grow more than one crop in a year by
utilising irrigation, thus making better use of land and increasing annual
income.
• Crop Diversification: With dependable water sources, farmers can
diversify into cash crops such as fruits, vegetables, and flowers, increasing
their profitability.
• Drought Resistance: Irrigation serves as an insurance against droughts
and dry spells, reducing the risk of crop failure.
• Land Reclamation: Irrigation can transform barren or semi-arid lands into
fertile agricultural zones, expanding cultivable areas.
• Economic Development: A flourishing agricultural sector supported by
irrigation creates job opportunities, improves rural livelihoods, and fosters
industrial development linked to agriculture.
• Environmental Benefits: Managed properly, irrigation can help in
maintaining soil structure, reducing erosion, and sustaining wetlands and
forests.
Ill Effects of Irrigation
While irrigation has numerous benefits, improper and unscientific irrigation
practices can cause several adverse effects:
• Waterlogging: Excessive irrigation leads to a rise in the groundwater
table, saturating the soil. Waterlogged soils lack oxygen, affecting root
respiration and leading to poor crop health and reduced yields.
• Salinisation: As water evaporates from the soil surface, it leaves behind
dissolved salts. Over time, salt accumulation renders the soil infertile, a
condition known as salinisation.
• Groundwater Depletion: Unregulated extraction of groundwater for
irrigation, especially through borewells and tube wells, can lower the water
table, leading to long-term shortages.
• Soil Degradation: Constant flooding of fields or over-irrigation can lead
to soil compaction, reducing permeability and affecting soil health.
• Impact on Natural Ecosystems: Diverting large quantities of water for
irrigation can harm rivers, lakes, and wetlands, impacting aquatic life and
biodiversity.
• Displacement and Conflicts: Construction of large irrigation projects
(dams, reservoirs) sometimes displaces communities and creates conflicts
over water sharing among regions.
Systems of Irrigation
Surface and Ground Water Sources
The two primary sources of irrigation water are:
• Surface Water Sources: Include rivers, reservoirs, ponds, lakes, and
canals. Surface water systems often involve large-scale community or
government-managed projects.
• Groundwater Sources: Include wells, borewells, and tube wells.
Groundwater irrigation is generally more decentralised and is commonly
used by individual farmers, especially where surface water is not easily
available.
Flow Irrigation
In flow irrigation systems, water is transported and distributed across agricultural
fields by the force of gravity. This method depends on the availability of a
perennial source of water at a higher elevation relative to the fields. Flow
irrigation is subdivided into:
• Direct Irrigation: Water is diverted from rivers during flood seasons
without storage.
• Storage Irrigation: Water is stored in reservoirs during rainy seasons and
used during dry periods.
Flow irrigation is cost-effective but requires well-designed networks of canals
and properly levelled fields.
Lift Irrigation
Lift irrigation involves lifting water from lower sources such as rivers, tanks, or
wells to higher ground using pumps or other mechanical devices. It is employed
where gravitational flow is not possible. Lift irrigation systems are more flexible
but require energy inputs (electricity or diesel) for operating pumps. Examples
include tubewell irrigation and river lift schemes.
Bandhara Irrigation
Bandhara irrigation uses structures called bandharas (small check dams or
weirs) built across small rivers or streams to store water. Stored water is either
allowed to percolate and recharge groundwater or directly diverted into irrigation
canals. Bandharas are commonly used in regions with seasonal water flows and
are highly effective in conserving water, promoting groundwater recharge, and
providing local irrigation support, especially in Maharashtra and other parts of
peninsular India.
Water Requirements of Crops
Duty, Delta, and Base Period
• Duty (D): It is the area of land (in hectares) that can be irrigated with a
continuous flow of 1 cubic metre per second (1 cumec) of water during the
entire base period. Duty helps in planning water requirements for different
crops.
• Delta (Δ): It represents the total depth of water (in metres or centimetres)
required by a crop during its entire life from sowing to harvest. It indicates
the volume of water needed per unit area.
• Base Period (B): This is the total time (in days) between the first watering
at sowing to the final watering before harvest. It determines the irrigation
scheduling and planning.
Relationship Between Duty, Delta, and Base Period
There is a mathematical relationship among duty (D), delta (Δ), and base period
(B) expressed as:
where:
• Δ is in metres,
• B is in days,
• D is in hectares per cumec.
This formula helps engineers and planners calculate the amount of water needed
for a particular crop over its growing season.
Factors Affecting Duty of Water
Several environmental, technical, and management factors influence the duty of
water:
• Climatic Conditions: High temperatures, low humidity, and strong winds
increase evapotranspiration, decreasing duty.
• Soil Characteristics: Sandy soils with low water-holding capacity require
more frequent irrigation compared to clayey soils.
• Crop Type: Different crops require different amounts of water; for
example, rice needs more water than wheat.
• Irrigation Methods: Efficient systems like drip or sprinkler irrigation
improve duty, whereas traditional flood irrigation reduces it.
• Water Management Practices: Proper maintenance of canals, avoiding
leakage, and timely irrigation practices enhance the duty.
• Topography: Fields with steep slopes experience more runoff and less
water retention, reducing duty.
Crop Seasons in India
India's cropping system is based on three main seasons:
• Kharif Season: Sowing starts with the onset of the monsoon (June–July)
and harvesting occurs in September–October. Major kharif crops include
paddy (rice), maize, sugarcane, cotton, and pulses.
• Rabi Season: Crops are sown after the monsoon in October–November
and harvested in March–April. Common rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram
(chickpea), and mustard.
• Zaid Season: A short intervening season between rabi and kharif (March–
June), suitable for quick-growing crops like cucumber, watermelon, and
vegetables.
Understanding the water requirements for different seasons is essential for
planning irrigation schedules.
Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation efficiency measures how effectively water is used for crop production.
It is the ratio of the water beneficially used by crops to the total water supplied to
the fields. Several types of efficiencies are considered:
• Conveyance Efficiency: Refers to water loss during transportation from
the source to the field through canals and pipes.
• Application Efficiency: Refers to the proportion of water stored in the root
zone compared to the water delivered to the field.
• Water Use Efficiency: Indicates the effectiveness with which plants use
the available water to produce biomass or yield.
A high irrigation efficiency implies minimum wastage, better productivity, and
conservation of precious water resources.
Frequency of Irrigation
The frequency of irrigation denotes the number of times water is applied to a crop
during its growing period. Factors influencing frequency include:
• Soil Type: Sandy soils need more frequent irrigation due to faster drainage,
while clayey soils retain moisture longer.
• Climate: Hot, dry climates require more frequent irrigation compared to
cool, humid regions.
• Crop Stage: Crops are more sensitive to water stress during stages like
flowering and fruit development, necessitating closer irrigation.
• Root Zone Depth: Shallow-rooted crops require more frequent watering
than deep-rooted crops.
Proper scheduling of irrigation frequency is crucial to optimise water usage and
maximise crop yield.
