Critical Analysis and
Reasoning in Discipline-
based Studies
What will you learn in this course?
1. Reasoning logically 邏輯推理
2. Analyzing theoretical issues in your subject area
3. Judging ethical problems in daily and academic
contexts
Course Structure – 3 areas
1. Logic and critical reasoning
2. Discipline-based studies
3. Ethical reasoning
Ch.1 Critical Thinking and Science
What is critical thinking?
清晰理性地思考
The ability to think clearly and rationally about what
to do or what to believe.
It includes the ability to engage in reflective and
independent thinking. 進⾏反思和獨立思考的能⼒。
A short video about the importance of critical
thinking in university education and career
development: https://youtu.be/6OLPL5p0fMg
Suppose you have critical thinking
skills, what are your capabilities?
You are able to :
想法之間的邏輯聯繫
understand the logical connections between ideas
identify, construct and evaluate arguments 識別、構建和評估論點
detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in
reasoning 檢測推理中的不⼀致和常⾒錯誤
solve problems systematically 系統地解決問題
identify the relevance and importance of ideas 確定想法的相關性和重要性
reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and
values 反思⾃⼰的信仰和價值觀的正當性
Therefore, a critical thinker:
能夠從他所知道的事情中推斷出後果
is able to deduce consequences from what he knows;
知道如何利⽤信息解決問題
knows how to make use of information to solve problems;
to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself.
尋求相關信息來源以告知⾃⼰
With critical thinking skills, you
Gain recognition from stakeholders, e.g.
governments, business executives, scientists, or
academics etc. that sounds very attractive.
Yet, do you know exactly the meaning of critical thinking ?
Is it a form of creative thinking?
Creative thinking – lead to new insights or perceptions;
new products and ideas.
Critical thinking, however, is not necessarily creative.
What is Science?
Is that subjects of physics, chemistry, and biology
constituted science while subjects of art, music, and
theology do not? 物理、化學和⽣物學科構成科學，
⽽藝術、⾳樂和神學學科不構成科
學嗎？
We are not asking for a list of activities that are usually
called “Science”.
Rather, we are asking “ what it is that makes something
a science”.
我們並不是要⼀份通常被稱為“科學”的活動清單。
相反，我們在問“是什麼讓某件事成為科學”。
科學是試圖理解、解釋和預測世界……但是
Science is an attempt to understand,
explain, and predict the world…BUT
What are the challenges?
1. Religions attempt to understand and explain the world. Will you
regard religion as a branch of science?
2. Astrology and fortunetelling are attempts to predict the future. Will
you describe these activities as science?
3. Historians try to understand and explained what happened in the past.
How will you classify history? Treat it as an arts subject or a science one?
1. 宗教試圖理解和解釋世界。 你會將宗教視為科學的⼀個分⽀？
2. 占星術和算命是預測未來的嘗試。 你會將這些活動描述為科學嗎？
3. 歷史學家試圖理解和解釋過去發⽣的事情。 你將如何對歷史進⾏分類？ 把它當作⼀
⾨藝術學科還是⼀⾨科學學科？
What are the distinguishing features of
Science? 科學的顯著特點是什麼？
It is the way that Scientists use to investigate the
world.
Is a distinctive method of enquiry that are not found
in non-scientific disciplines.
Make use of experimentation, observation, and
theory-construction that enable scientists to unravel
the nature’s secret.
1.這是科學家⽤來研究世界的⽅式。
2.是⼀種獨特的探究⽅法，在非科學學科中沒有發現。
3.利⽤實驗、觀察和理論構建，使科學家能夠解開⼤⾃然的秘密。
Then how could scientists solve problem
scientifically? 那麼科學家如何科學地解決問題
They do not abandon theories whenever they conflict with
the observational data. Rather they look for ways of
eliminating the conflict without having to give up the
theory. 當理論與觀測數據發⽣衝突時，他們不會放棄理論。 相反，
他們在不放棄理論的情況下尋找消除衝突的⽅法。
Scientists are not given experiments. They begin with a
problem or question, and have to figure out, through
trial and error, how to solve it.
不給科學家做實驗。 他們從⼀個問題或疑問開始，並且必須通過反複試驗找出如何解決它。
What should you do if you would like to
learn to think scientifically? 學會科學思考
1. Organize and internalize facts
2. Learn terminology
3. Use scientific procedures
4. Continue to use pre-existing frameworks of knowledge and
transfer established knowledge they learn in school to
new settings/ contexts
5. Learnt to sorts things into given categories
1. 組織和內化事實
2. 學習術語
3.使⽤科學的程序
4. 繼續使⽤已有的知識框架，並將他們在學校學到的既定知識轉移到新的環境/環境中
5. 學會將事物分類為給定的類別
科學思維不是跑完⼀套步驟的問題
Scientific thinking is not a matter of
running through a set of steps.
Scientificthinking is a kind of thinking that
we continually move back and forth
between questions we ask about the world
and observations we make and experiments
we devise to test out various hypotheses,
guesses and models.
科學思維是⼀種思維，我們不斷地在我們提出的關於世界的
問題和我們所做的觀察和我們設計的實驗之間來回移動，以
檢驗各種假設、猜測和模型。
What does this result tell me?
Why did this happen?
If this is why, then that should happen when I…….
We have to do a lot of critical thinking in the
scientific thinking process, because we must ask
clear and precise questions in order to devise
experiments that can give us clear and precise
answers.
我們必須在科學思維過程中進⾏⼤量批判性思維，因為我們必須提出清晰準確的問題，才能設計出
能夠給我們清晰準確答案的實驗。
You should seek connections, and access explanations.
批判性思維不是積累信息的問題。
Critical thinking is not a matter of
accumulating information.
A person with a good memory and who knows a lot of
facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking.
⼀個記憶⼒好，知道很多事實的⼈不⼀定擅長批判性思維
Q: once again, what is critical thinking?
Is it an essential skills that we opt for it?
According to the National Council
for Excellence in Critical Thinking,
critical thinking is:
the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualising, applying, analysing, synthesising, or
evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or
communication as a guide to belief or action.
積極⽽熟練地進⾏智⼒訓練的過程
概念化、應⽤、分析、綜合或評估從以下收集或⽣成的信息，
觀察、經驗、反思、推理或交流作為信念或⾏動的指南。
Zeegers, P., Deller-Evans, K., Egege S., and Klinger, C. (2008). Essential Skills for
Science and Technology. Oxford University Press.
當我們分析某事時，我們會做什麼？
• 這個詞來⾃希臘詞ἀνάλυσις
（analusis），
Analysis 分析 ⼤致意思是分解。
• 分析是解決所有學科問題的基本⽅
法，尤其是在學術環境中。
• 例如，在閱讀理解中，我們被要求分
析⽂章中所說的內容。 ⽽在化學中，我
們分析化合物的成分。
• What do we do when we analyze something? • ⾄少有三個⽅⾯的分析。
• The word comes from the Greek word ἀνάλυσις (analusis),
roughly meaning decomposition.
• Analysis is a bread-and-butter method in tackling
problems in all subjects, especially in the academic
context.
• For example, in reading comprehension, we are asked to
analyze what is said in the passage; whereas in chemistry,
we analyze the constituents of a compound.
• There are at least three aspects of analysis.
19
I. Regressive
Working back to first principles so that something can be
proved or constructed.
For example, we believe that certain basic principles can
help us derive all other important results in a subject: in
some contexts, we call those first principles axioms.
回到最初的原則，以便可以證明或構建某些東⻄。
例如，我們相信某些基本原則可以幫助我們推導出⼀個學科的所有其他重要結果：在某些情況下，我們
將這些基本原則稱為公理。
20
Examples
Dalton’s atomic theory in Chemistry??
Isaac Newton’s three laws of motion and his famous principle
of universal gravitation in Physics??
Charles Darwin’s discovery of the theory of evolution
by natural selection in Biology??
II. Decompositional
Breaking down a complicated concept into smaller parts
In biology, we understand an organism in terms of its
genetic codes. Of course, in chemistry a compound is
decomposed into its elements.
將復雜的概念分解成更⼩的部分
在⽣物學中，我們從遺傳密碼的⾓度來理解有機體。
當然，在化學中，化合物被分解成元素。
22
III. Interpretive 解說
Interpretive Analysis involves a creative dimension
requiring us to frame a problem in terms of new concepts
and the relations amongst them.
Humanities students are often asked to interpret a text.
解釋性分析涉及⼀個創造性的維度，要求我們根據新概念和它們之間的關係來構建問題。
⼈⽂學科的學⽣經常被要求解釋⼀篇⽂章。
23
What about you, as a science student?
Which two aspects of analysis are more common
in the context of science?
1. Regressive
2. Decompositional
Why critical thinking is needed?
To make the best decision in every important
issue.
To be achieved by evaluating arguments’ pro and con.
The ultimate objective in thinking critically
is to come to conclusions that are correct
and to make decisions that are wise.
The purpose of thinking critically is to come
to correct conclusions.
In the realm of science, a core set of
characteristics in critical thinking involves:
Analysis
Interpretation
Inference
Explanation
Evaluation
Self-regulation
科學與對知識的追求
Science and the pursuit of knowledge
Critical thinking is also linked to the “scientific
method”, an approach to science credited to Francis
Bacon (1561-1626).
The pursuit of science is about discovering new things,
and determining the laws that govern them.
Sir Isaac Newton is the founder of the “scientific
method”. He proved his claims by using scientific
methods of observation, hypothesis, and
experimentation.
批判性思維也與“科學⽅法”有關，這是⼀種歸功於弗朗⻄
斯·培根（Francis Bacon，1561-1626）的科學⽅法。
對科學的追求是發現新事物並確定⽀配它們的規律。
艾薩克·⽜頓爵⼠是“科學⽅法”的創始⼈。 他通過使⽤
觀察、假設和實驗的科學⽅法證明了他的主張。
The scientific method
29
The scientific method
Draw a conclusion 30
Both theory and hypothesis are explanations of
what you observed, what are the differences
between theses two terms?
What is the definition of law?
31
Hypothesis
A tentative explanation for a set of observations
/questions regarding cause and effect in a specific
situation
Testable
Can be rejected or corrected
對特定情況下關於因果關係的⼀組觀察/問題的初步解釋
可測試
可以拒絕或更正
32
Theory
A well established explanation of the experimental
observations
A unifying principle that explains a set of observations
and can accurately predict the results of future
observations or experiments
對實驗觀察結果的完善解釋
解釋⼀組觀察結果並能準確預測未來觀察或實驗結果的統⼀原則
33
Law
A statement describes the relationship between
phenomena that is always the same under the
same conditions.
Has a broad application
E.g. Newton’s law of Motions
陳述描述了在相同條件下總是相同的現象之間的關係。
應⽤廣泛
例如。 ⽜頓運動定律
34
The four basic steps in Scientific method:
1. State the problem
- a problem can't be solved if it isn't understood.
Curious Observation e.g Is there a Problem?
2. Form a hypothesis
- a possible solution, formed after gathering information
about the problem.
Search, Explore, and Gather the Information.
Make the Educated Guess. Generate Creative
and Logical hypotheses
35
Basic steps in scientific methods
3. Test the hypothesis
- an experiment is an organized set of
procedures performed to determine if the
hypothesis solves the problem or not
- Challenge the Hypothesis
4. Draw conclusions
- in it's simplest form, the conclusion will be
"yes“- the hypothesis was correct, or "no" -
the hypothesis was not correct
- Reach a Conclusion
36
Remember
We have to do a lot of critical thinking in the
scientific thinking process, because we must ask
clear and precise questions in order to devise
experiments that can give us clear and precise
answers.
When we think, we will inevitably ask questions.
What are the probing questions that we shall ask
in performing experiments?
Examples of general probing questions:
What exactly are you doing? Why?
What results do you expect? Why?
Have you designed any controls for this experiments? /
Why do you have to use the same amount of liquid for
both tests? / Why do these have to be the same
temperature? Size? What would happen if they weren’t
Examples of probing questions in making
calculations or taking measurements:
What are you measuring? Why? What will that tell you?
What numbers do you need to record? In what units? Why?
What equation are you using? Why? Which numbers go
where in the equation?
What does the answer tell you?
What would a different answer mean?
Examples of probing questions in
studying anatomy:
If this part of the body has this function, what would
happen if it no longer functioned fully or at all? Why do
you say so?
What would that be like for the person? What if it
functioned on “overdrive”?
What other parts of the body would such breakdowns
affect? Why?
Examples of probing questions in Biology:
How important is this distinction? Let’s look at our chart of
categories of living things. Where on the chart is this distinction?
Why?
What distinction is more important? Why? Less important? Why?
Sample:
Why is the distinction between vertebrates and invertebrates
more important to zoologists than the distinction between warm-
blooded and cold-blooded animals?
Be prepared to be asked to explain
justification for scientific claims.
Why does your text say this?
How would that prove this conclusion?
Could we explain these results another way?
How could we tell which was right? What would we have
to do? Why?
Task:
Where do plants get their food?
From water, soil, carbon dioxide gas
Misunderstood the concept of “food” for plants
Crucial idea: plants make their own food.
3 important elements to critical thinking
that emerge from the history of science:
Logic
Argumentation
Proof or evidence to support one’s ideas.
Critical use of all 3 elements enable you to discern:
- what scientific statements are mostly to be true;
- What scientific statements there are good reasons
to doubt;
- Which scientific statements we cannot evaluate.
In the sciences…
We focus on developing knowledge of the physical
world and the laws that govern it.
All good research contributes to our knowledge based
by claiming something new or confirming previously
made claims.
E.g. plants metabolise carbon dioxide
E.g. water boils at 100C
These claims can be either true or false.
Critical thinking in the sciences
tends to focus on Problem solving.
We cannot rely on perception to give us an
accurate picture of the world because it is too
easy to be mistaken.
The most important criterion for knowledge claims is
justification, the evidence, proof, or reasons one has
for supporting a claim.
The stronger or more convincing that evidence, or
the more logical or persuasive the argument, the
more likely the claim is true.
Examples
To convince you to learn critical thinking skills
Why critical thinking is important?
Books, lectures, and articles contain more than
information. You need to sort fact from opinion or
interpretation. Assess the argument.
Writers express different or contradictory views – you
need to compare and contrast.
Can express bias or limited cultural perspective – you
need to assess for objectivity.
Ideas can conflict with personal beliefs, ethics and
knowledge – you need to be personally objective.
書籍、講座和⽂章包含的不僅僅是信息。 您需要
從意⾒或解釋中對事實進⾏分類。 評估論點。
作家表達不同或⽭盾的觀點——你需要比較和
對比。
可以表達偏⾒或有限的⽂化視⾓——您需要評
估客觀性。
想法可能與個⼈信仰、道德和知識相衝突——
你需要個⼈客觀。
Knowledge claims rely on the strength of the evidence
used in support – you need to assess justification or proof.
In contrasting your own claims, you need to be clear,
convincing, and logical.
Evaluation of evidence
In the mid 19th century, there was a particularly severe
outbreak of cholera in London. It was widely believed
at the time that cholera was an airborne disease and
that the outbreak was caused by the dirty air. A major
engineering project was undertaken to improve the
quality of air by channeling London sewage out of the
city in the belief that this would remove the offending
cholera bacteria. On completion of the project, the
incidences of cholera disappeared, thus confirming that
cholera was indeed an airborne disease.
Ten years later, the cholera returned. Further
investigation discovered that eels had been trapped in
some of the water pumps and died, contaminating the
drinking water. Once these were sealed off form use,
there were no new outbreaks of cholera.
TASK
Was cholera an airborne or a water-borne disease?
It turned out that cholera was, in fact, a water-borne
disease.
To sum up…..
It is easy to make mistakes, jump to the
wrong conclusion, or jump to conclusions too
quickly.
Developing critical thinking skills by learning
how to assess the accuracy, reliability, and
quality of the evidence presented can help
reduce error and to draw a correct conclusion.
