RED ROT OF SUGARCANE
Introduction:-
Red rot is a destructive disease of sugarcane in the tropics and sub-tropics areas of
the world. This disease exists in India, USA and Pakistan. In USA, the disease in not
serious on standing canes but causes appreciable damage through seed rot and inhibition
of germination.
Symptoms:-
First symptoms are seen after the rainy season when plant growth stops and
sucrose formation begins. Loss of colour and drooping of third and fourth leaves from the
top are the earliest symptoms. Then the entire top withers. In late stages the canes
themselves show the effects. They become shrivels, the rind shrinks and becomes
longitudinally wrinkles. Such canes are lighter in weight and easily broken. If the
diseased canes are open longitudinally especially when withering of leaves starts, the pith
looks red coloured. Characteristic bands of clear white areas are seen running
transversely across the full breadth of the reddened pith. In the advances stages of the
disease, the red colour may be replaced by dirty brown and the white band may not be
very conspicuous. The juice gives a bad smell due to the conversion of sucrose into
glucose and alcohol by enzymatic action of the pathogen.
The causal organism:-
Colletotrichum falcatum (Imperfect stage), it forms acervulus.
Glomerella tucumanensis (Perfect stage), it forms perithecium.
Disease Cycle:-
Generally the seed setts from diseased canes are the main source of primary
infection by the pathogen. The conidia are disseminated by the insects, wind and
irrigation water. The pathogen may also survive in the soil in the form of conidia and
chlamydospores those may disseminate through irrigation water and the cultural
operations and cause infections in new crop.
Epidemiology:-
High humidity, water logged conditions, lack of proper cultural operations and
temperature of 25-30 OC promote the disease epidemics.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Farm Hygiene:
1. The diseased canes should be dug out and burnt.
2. After harvest the fallen leaves should be burnt.
3. Dont use the diseased setts as seed.
B. Crop Rotations:
Once the disease has appeared in the field, then two to three years rotations are
recommended. Also dont grow same variety for several years on the same piece of
land.
C. Seed Setts Treatment:
Seed setts should be treated with any one of the following fungicides:
4. Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) @ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
5. Topsin-M (Thiophanate Methyl) (@ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
6. Bavistin (Carbendazim) (@ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
7. Cabrio-Top (Pyraclastrobin + metiram) (@ 2.5 gm/ Liter of water.
D. Resistant Varieties:
Always use the sugarcane varieties which are resistant against the disease.
POWDERY MILDEW OF MANGO
Introduction: Powdery mildew is a destructive disease of mango in India, Egypt, South
Africa, Pakistan, Sri-Lanka, Australia and U.S.A. The disease occurs during February to
March depending on climatic conditions in the area. Usually its appearance coincides
with blossom stage of the tree and blossom blight is the most destructive phase of the
disease. In addition to loss of blossoms, infection of leaves in some areas causes
defoliation. Even fruits may be affected and shed. Losses ranging from 20-90 % have
been reported.
Symptoms: Symptoms appear on the inflorescence. The sepals are more prone to
infection than other floral parts. White or grey powdery growth of fungus appears on the
panicles and soon the flowers are blighted, turn brown to black and either shed or remain
as dry masses in the inflorescence. The number of flowers is considerably reduced and
consequently there is less fruiting. Fruits formed in diseased panicles fail to grow and
shed before reaching pea-size. If infection occurs after fruit set, the fruits soon fall down.
The fruits are often malformed and off-coloured. Symptoms of die-back may also appear
on twigs.
Causal organism: -Oidium mangiferae, a fungus is reported as the cause of the disease.
Disease cycle: The fungus survives as mycelium and conidia on the tree branches and
also present on the other annual and perennial hosts. In favourable weather conidia
formed on the mycelium are dispersed by wind and spread the disease. The optimum
temperature for germination of conidia is 22°C. Generally, cold nights, light rains or
foggy weather at the time of flowering favour initiation of the disease. High wind
velocity favours spread of powdery mildew.
Management: Following preventative measures should be adopted to control the disease:
-
A. Cultural control
1. Prune the infected panicles, twigs and branches of the tree.
2. Destroy diseased plant debris on the floor of the tree.
B. Chemical control
1. Topas (Penconazle) @ 0.5 mI/ Litre of water as spray.
2. Score (Difenoconazole) @ 0.2 mI/ L of water as spray.
3. Topsin-M (Thiophanate Methyl) @1gm/ L of water as spray.
4. Baytan Foliar (Trideminol) @ 0.5 mI/ L of water as spray.
5. Bavistin (Carbendazim) @ 1 gm/ L of water as spray.
Repeat the spray after 7-12 days interval depending on the severity of the
infection.
QUICK DECLINE OF MANGO/ MANGO SUDDEN DEATH
DISEASE (MSDD)
Introduction:-
Quick decline of mango or mango sudden death syndrome is the most important
disease of mango in Pakistan. It was first observed in the orchards of Distt. Muzaffar
Garh in 1995. Now it has spread all mango growing areas of Punjab and Sind Provinces.
No variety is found to be resistant against this disease. Its attack is common on Chaunsa
variety which is popular in Pakistan and also has an export potential. The disease has
been reported from Oman too.
Symptoms:-
Fungi of the disease are usually present in the soil in the collar region of the tree.
The bark of the tree near the collar region of the tree turns black and the leaves of the tree
become light green. The longitudinal cracks are also found on the trunk. Gum like
material oozes out from few trees that is called gummosis. The fungi cause the rotting of
the xylem and phloem and he trees wilt and result in the change of the colour of the
leaves. The xylem and phloem become brown and yellow liquid comes out of them, in
few cases it may be black. In severe cases the disease may spread to the crown roots.
When 95% of xylem and phloem is damaged then the transport of the water and food to
the plant is stopped. Then the plant suddenly dies. Electron microscopy reveals that the
tree death is due to over tylosis by the tree.
The Causal Organism:-
Botryodiplodia theobromae
Ceratocystis fimbriata
Other Possible Causes:
1. Inter-culture in mango orchard which results in the injury of the tree roots.
2. Termites and bark beetles not only injure the trees but also carry the conidia of
the fungi from diseased to the healthy portion.
3. Deficiency of micronutrients e. g. Cu, Fe and Zn.
4. Over irrigation which results in the death of the tender roots.
5. The injuries on the branches and trunk made by the man himself and the farm
implements.
Disease Cycle:-
They are soil and air borne fungi. The disease spreads from dead branches or trees
and the diseased material left over in the orchards. The conidia of the fungus cause the
initial infections. Disease may also spread from the infected nurseries.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Cultural Practices:
1. Always have the healthy seedlings from the healthy nursery.
2. Remove the infected and the dead trees from the field.
3. Prune the infected and the dead branches, collect and burn them.
4. Use of balance fertilizers and also micronutrients application.
5. No movement of irrigation water from diseased to healthy trees.
6. Avoid deep ploughing because it will cause injuries to the plant roots.
7. Inspect the suspected plants (The plants with longitudinal cracks and or gum on
the trunk) twice in a year (February and September). Remove the soil collar
region up to 6-9 soil depth and then inspect. Scratch the diseased portion of the
bark with a chopper or an axe and then treat the plants accordingly.
8. Never apply Boardeaux Mixture on the trunk because it will mask the disease
symptoms like gummosis and longitudinal cracks.
B. Use of Fungicides:
If the infection is less than 50 % of the trunk area then the trees may recover from
the disease otherwise they will die.
Treat the scratched portion of the tree with the one of the following fungicides in
prescribed spray schedule:
1. Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) @ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
2. Topsin-M (Thiophanate Methyl) (@ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
3. Bavistin (Carbendazim) @ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
4. Schincar @ 2.0 ml/ Liter of water.
5. Score (difenaconazole) @ 0.5 ml/ Liter of water.
Spray Schedule:
1. Ist spray during last week of February
2. 2nd spray during May or June and
3. 3rd spray after monsoon pruning.
C. Use of Termiticides:
1. Lorsban (Chlorpyrephos) @ 1 ml/ Liter of water or
2. Talstar (Bifenthrin) @ 0.5 ml/ Liter of water.
3. Imidachloprid @ 2.5 gm/ Litre of Water
GUMMOSIS AND ROOT ROT OF CITRUS
Introduction:-
Phtophthora spp. cause the most serious soil diseases throughout the world.
Losses occur from damping off of seedlings in the seed beds, root rot in nurseries.
Gummosis, trunk rot, collar rot, root rot, crown rot and leaf rot in the trees. Disease is
common where rough lemon (Citrus jambheri), a susceptible root stock or in the
plantings on resistant root stock where the graft union is below or at soil surface exposing
scion tissues to the pathogen.
This disease is present in almost all the citrus nurseries and the orchards of
Pakistan.
Symptoms:-
In Nurseries:
Seed or soil borne fungus penetrates the stem just above the soil line and causes
the seedlings to topple. Abundant soil moisture and favourable temperature cause rapid
killing of seedlings.
On Trees:
Disease appears at the base of the trunk near the ground level, lesion are formed
on the trunk and crown roots. Infection can spread upward and downward. The disease
spreads around the trunk, girdling it and killing the tree. Fibrous root rots in bearing trees,
causes tree decline. Oozing of gum from the affected parts of trunks, there are
longitudinal cracks with amber gum, the gum is water soluble. In rainy season it may
wash out.
In advanced stage of the disease there is destruction of roots, before death the
plant flowers profusely with mummified fruit.
Lesion:
An injury resulting in to impairment or loss of function of an organ or part of the
plant/ tree.
The causal organism:-
Phytophthora citrophthora
P. parasitica and P. palmivora
Disease Cycle:-
It is a soil borne fungus, the mycelium is converted in to oospores and chlamydospores in
the soil. They cause the primary infections. Oospores are low in number they are resistant
to desiccation and cold temperatures. Chlamydospores are common; they are formed in
limiting moisture, low temperature and during less root formation periods.
Chlamydospores germinate by germ tube and form sporangia they liberate the motile
zoospores. Pathogen survives in the soil, on fallen leaves, twigs, branches, fruits and
cracks on the trees. Infested nurseries are the main source of the disease spread. The
pathogen attack the roots when roots are growing more, it damages the cortex.
Epidemiology:-
Phytophthora citrophthora grows the best at 24-28 OC and P. parasitica at 28-32
O
C. Dispersal of sporangia and zoospores takes place by wind, raindrop splashes,
irrigation water and insects.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Preventive Measures:
1. Always have the healthy seedlings from the healthy nursery.
2. Raise the citrus orchards on the well drained soils.
3. Use the resistant root stock i.e. Jatti Khatti.
4. Bud union should be 30-45 cm above the soil line.
5. No movement of irrigation water from diseased to healthy trees.
6. Infected twigs, leaves, branches, fruits be collected and burnt.
B. Use of Foliar Fungicides:
1. Spray of Bordeaux Mixture (4:4:50).
2. Ridomil Gold MZ (Mancozeb + matalaxyl) @ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
3. Aliette (Fosetyl Aluminium) @ 2.0 gm/ Liter of water,
These fungicides can also be drenched in the soils @ 2.0 gm/ square foot of soil.
4. Orondis Opti (Oxathiapipralin) @ 4ml/ Litre of water
5. Paste the Ridomil Gold MZ 1:20 (1 part Ridomil Gold MZ and 20 parts slaked
lime)
Scratch the crack portion of the twigs or branches and apply the paste with the
help of a painting brush.
CITRUS CANKER
Introduction: - Citrus canker or Asiatic citrus canker is a wide spread disease in all the
citrus growing areas of the world. It is reported to have originated from China. Origin of
the disease is supposed to be in the tropical areas of Asia such as South China, Indonesia
and India. The pathogen was distributed through planting material and spread to Europe
and to USA in 1910. In 1980s the disease re appeared in some parts of Australia, Mexico
and Florida. In 1913 disease become so severe that legislation was made according to
which the diseased trees and nursery stock often the entire orchard should be eradicated
to eradicate the pathogen completely from the state. It was claimed that pathogen was
completely eliminated from USA by 1949. However it re-appeared in Florida since 1984.
Symptoms: - The disease occurs on leaves, twigs, thorns older branches and fruit in the
form of necrotic brown spots with rough surface. Leaf lesions first appear as small,
round, watery, translucent spots. They are raised and become yellowish brown. They first
develop on lower surface of the leaf and then on both the surfaces. As the disease
advances the surface of the spots becomes white or greyish finally ruptures in the centre
giving a rough, corky or canker like appearance have brown colour. The spots increase in
size and may coalesce to form elongated lesions. Pathogen causes the hyperplasia and
hypertrophy of parenchymatous cells; due to the execution of pressure; margins become
raised.
Heavy foliage infection causes severe defoliation leaving only bare twigs
Severe infection of newly planted stock may cause delay in growth and can be
fatal.
Causal Organism: - Xanthomonas citri pv. citri is responsible for the disease
establishment.
Disease cycle: Pathogen isnt able to survive in moist soil on fallen leaves, crop residues
for more than 3 weeks. Pathogen survives on the plant and is transmitted through rain
splashes, strong winds and also through the transfer of water from diseased to healthy
fields. Pathogen is also transmitted through citrus leaf miner. Pathogen is also transmitted
through nursery plants raised on diseased soil.
Epidemiology: - High nitrogen application, rainfall and 20-30 ° C temperature during the
months of March April favours the disease development.
Management: - Following preventative measures should be adopted in order to control
the disease.
A- Regulatory Control:
Strict quarantine measures should be adopted in order to avoid the entry of new
pathogen.
B- Cultural Control:
1) Heavily infected plants should be burnt and removed
2) Raise nursery plants on diseased free soil
3) Plant jaman trees on the sides of the orchards for the establishment of
wind breaks.
4) Prune the diseased branches and destroy them.
C-Chemical Control:
1) Apply Bordeaux mixture @ 4:4:50, or 1:1:100 as spray
OR
2) Use Copride (Copper oxychloride) @ 2.5 g / litre of water for spray.
OR
3) Agrimycin-100 (Streptomyces Sulphate) @ 0.5-1 g / litre of water for spray.
OR
4) Kasumin (Kasugamycin) @ 6 ml / litre of water for spray.
APPLE SCAB
Introduction:-
It is the most serious disease of apple throughout the world. It was first reported
from Sweden as early as 1819. It is known to occur from North and South America South
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, India and Pakistan (In 1935 in Indo-Pak sub-continent).
In 1973 its epidemic was recorded in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Symptoms:-
Typical symptoms of disease appear on leaves, fruit, and in severe attack on 1-3
years shoots. Petioles, pedicels and sepals are also attacked. Light brown or olive green,
irregular spots develop on the lower surface of leaves. Then appear on the upper surface
as grayish dark spots and are circular. The tissues surrounding these spots are often
thickened and some time bulged up. There is premature leaf drop and floral buds drop.
The symptoms are also appear on the fruit.
The Causal Organism:-
Venturia inaequalis (Perfect stage)
Spilocaea pomi (Imperfect stage)
Disease Cycle:-
The apple scab has two distinct stages in its life cycle
(i) The saprophytic pseudothecial stage or overwintering stage on dead fallen
leaves
(ii) The conidial, summer stage which is parasitic on leaves, flower buds, flowers
and shoots on the tree during spring and summer.
Primary infection is through ascospores of the pseudothecial stage. The conidial
Stage is responsible for repeated summer cycle for the entire summer.
Temperature:-
10-22 ̊C
Humidity:-
90 %, leaves wetness.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Elimination or reduction of pseudothecial stage:
1- 2 % urea spray in spring on over wintered leaves not only reduced ascospores
but also hastens the decomposition of leaves.
2- For complete suppression of ascospores discharge, apply 3-5 % urea spray on
over wintered leaves just before leaf fall.
B. Chemical control:
1- Dithan M-45 @ 2 gm/ liter of water at silver tip to green tip stage (March-
April).
2- Shincar @ 0.5 ml/ liter of water 10-12 days after first spray.
3- Topsin-M @ 2 gm/ liter of water 10-12 days after second spray
4- Score @ 0.5 gm/ liter of water, fourth spray.
5- Antracol @ 10 gm/ liter of water fifth spray.
C. Use of resistant varieties:
-Red delious variety is found susceptible.
-USA and Canadian cultivars should be grown i.e.:-
Prima, Sir Prize, Red Free, Nova, Libert and Freedom be grown in the orchards.
EARLY BLIGHT OF POTATO
Introduction:-
It is common disease of potato in the areas wherever crop is grown in the world.
This disease also occurs in Pakistan. The damage to the crop is considerable as the peak
period coincides with the period of tuber formation. The disease can appear when the
crop is quite young, much earlier than the late blight. The disease occurs in cool as well
as in warm areas. Early blight also occurs on tomato.
Symptoms:-
The disease first appears as small, isolated, scattered, pale brown spots on the
leaflets. Leaves near the soil line are attacked first and the disease progresses upward. In
the necrotic area of the spots concentric rings develop to produce a target board effect.
This target board effect is due to interruption of fungal growth caused by un-favourable
conditions. There is usually a narrow chlorotic zone around the spot and increases with
the increase of the spot. When these spots involve large veins, chlorosis commonly
extends well beyond the necrotic area. This is due to a toxin (alternaric acid and
alternarine) produced by the fungus and translocated through the veins. In humid weather
the spot coalesce to form the big rotting areas on leaves. Symptoms also appear on the
potato stems and tubers. In severe attack, the leaves shrivel and fall off.
The Causal Organism:-
Alternaria solani
Disease Cycle:-
The mycelium of the fungus remains viable in dry infected leaves for a year. So
mycelium and conidia in the soil or debris cause the primary infection. Contamination of
the tubers with the debris is also cause of primary infection during the next season.
Secondary infection spreads through conidia developed on primary spots. These conidia
are disseminated by wind, water and insects.
Temperature:-
14-24 ̊C
Humidity:-
Adequate moisture in the form of dew, longer periods of humidity (more than 80%) and
short photoperiods favor disease development.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Cultural Practices:
1. Have healthy seed from healthy crop.
2. Pathogen is soil borne, thats why crop rotation and field sanitation are
necessary methods.
3. Harvesting after the removal of the haulms
4. Dead haulms should be collected and burnt after crop harvest.
B. Chemical control:
1- Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) @ 2 gm/ liter of water.
or 2- Antracol (Propineb) @ 5-10 gm/ liter of water.
or 3- Score (Difenoconazole) (@ 0.5ml/ liter of water.
4. Melody Due (Propineb+Iprovalicarb) 3 gm/ liter of water.
5- Ridomil Gold MZ (Mancozeb + Matalaxyl) @ 2.0 gm/ liter of water.
C. Use of resistant/ Approved varieties:
1. Kuroda
2. SH-5
3. Faisalabad-white
4.Faisalabad-Red
5. PRI-Red
6. Rubi
7. Sadaf
LATE BLIGHT OF POTATO
Introduction:-
The disease was first appeared in Northern Andes in South America. This is the
most destructive disease of potato in the World. In 1845, there was a great famine due to
this disease in Ireland. During the year 1870-1880, this disease was presumed to occur
from Nilgri Hills in Indo-Pak subcontinent. The pathogen Phytophthora is basically a
cold climate pathogen but has capacity to adopt to temperate to sub-tropical climatic
conditions which support potato production. The disease also occurs in tomato.
Symptoms:-
The blighted area first appears as faded green patches which soon turn brownish-
black. The dead areas appear at the tip or the margins and spread downward and inward.
If moist weather prevails, the entire leaf may be killed in 1-4 days. They are generally the
lower leaves those first show the disease but all portions i.e. stem and tubers are affected
and there are numerous infections in severe cases. When heavy infection late in the
season due to moist conditions, there is presence of offensive smell in the field. Potato
tubers are infected in the field and also get infection as dry rot. and in the storage as wet
rot, that is due to the attack of secondary pathogen i.e., bacteria.
The causal organism:-
Phytophthora infestans
Disease Cycle:-
The primary infection is through infected tubers. The mycelium in the tuber
causes the infection. Secondary spread of the disease is through sporangia or zoospores
that may take place through infected leaves or stems. The sporangia are spread by wind,
water and insects.
Environmental factors:-
Temperature:-
12-15 ̊C
Relative humidity:-
70-90 %
Management of the Disease: -
A) Cultural practices:
1. Selection of healthy tubers for seeds.
2. Field sanitation, heavily infected plants should be uprooted and destroyed.
3. Harvesting should be delayed when the crop is fully mature.
4. Harvesting after the removal of the haulms
5. Proper storage of potato tubers at 4-5 ̊C, proper ventilation.
6. High ridging during sowing i.e. 15 Cm high ridges.
B) Foliar sprays of Fungicides:
1. Bordeaux Mixture 4:4:50
or
2. Copride (Copper oxychloride) @ 2gm/ litre of water
or
3. Dithane M-45 @ 2 gm/ Litre of water.
or
4. Ridomil Gold MZ @ 2.5 gm/ Litre of water.
or
5. Aliette @ 3 gm/ L of water.
or
6. Orondis Opti (Oxathiapiprolin) @ 4ml/Litre of water
Or
7. Revus (Mandipropamid)
C. Use of resistant/ Approved varieties:
1. Kuroda
2. SH-5
3. Faisalabad-white
4.Faisalabad-Red
5. PRI-Red
6. Rubi
7. Sadaf
DOWNY MILDEW OF CUCURBITS
Introduction:-
Downy mildew was found in Cuba during 1868 and then in 1888 in Japan. The
fungus attacks only the members of cucurbitaceae family. It can also occur on the wild
cucurbits e.g., grow in the forests of Kashmir. They are the main source of the pathogen
survival. In Pakistan, the pathogen attacks musk melon, cucumber, round gourd, ridge
gourd and sponge gourd.
Symptoms:-
The first symptoms on the leaves resemble those of mosaic. The pale green areas
are separated by islands of darker green. Soon the spots become well defined. They are
angular, yellow and often restricted by veins on the upper surface of leaves. On the lower
side of these spots purplish downy growth appears in moist weather. The entire leaf dries
quickly. Usually the central leaves are attacked first and are followed by other leaves. On
the infected veins, fruits are few and small with poor taste.
The Causal Organism:-
Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Disease Cycle:-
During winter months, the fungus perpetuates in the form of active mycelium on
wild or cultivated sponge gourd. Oospores are also important source of survival and
primary inoculum for initiation of the disease. The disease spread in the field through
dispersal of sporangia. They are carried away by wind and are dispersed by rain drop
splashes. Red pumpkin beetle and hadda beetles also transport the sporangia. Contact
between the diseased and healthy leaves also causes local spread.
Temperature:-
15-25 ̊C
Humidity:-
Short periods of dews are required for infection, rain splashes enhance the
disease.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Cultural Practices:
1- Early sowing.
2- Destruction of weed host.
3- In tunnel farming, opening of tunnel entrances from 10:00 am to 4:00 pm to
decrease the moisture inside.
4- Proper spacing of vines.
5- Field sanitation.
6- Use of balanced fertilizers.
B. Chemical control:
1- Dithane M-45 @ 6 gm/ liter of water.
or 2- Antracol (Propineb) @ 5-10 gm/ liter of water.
or 3- Revus (Mandipropamid) @ 2.4 ml/ liter of water.
or 4- Ridomil Gold MZ @ 2gm / liter of water
5-Success (Chlorothalonil+Matalyxl) 2.5 gm / liter of water
or 6- Aliette @ 3 gm/ liter of water.
1- Curzate (Cymoxanil+Matalaxyl)
8- Bordeaux mixture 4:4:50
Repeat the spray after 1 week interval.
C. Use of resistant varieties:
-Breeding for downy mildew resistance.
This practice is common in USA, Japan and France but not adopted in Pakistan.
POWDERY MILDEW OF CUCURBITS
Introduction:-
This disease has been observed on cucurbits since 1800. In Pakistan, cucurbits
crops affected by the disease are musk melon, cucumber, squash and snake gourd.
Symptoms:-
The first symptoms are tiny, white to dirty grey spots on leaves and stems. Most
extensive development of the mildew occurs on the epidermis of the leaf. As these spots
enlarge, the surface becomes powdery. The effect of severe infection may be premature
defoliation of the plant. The fruits remain undersize and often deformed. Quality of the
fruit is affected.
The causal organism:-
Erysiphe cichoracearum
Disease Cycle:-
Perithecial stage develops on stray and wild cucurbits plants in isolated areas and
serve as primary inoculum (rare). The ascospores imitate the infection. Hyphae are
formed, from these hyphae conidial stage develops. Conidial stage is also formed on the
wild and stray host. They release conidia for primary infection of the spring and summer
sown vegetables. Conidia are dispersed by wind and also by insects (thrips, beetles etc.).
Environmental factors:-
Temperature:-
25-35 ̊C
Relative humidity:-
60-70%
Sunshine and dryness is necessary for reproduction of the fungus.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Cultural practices:
1. Destruction of weed hosts and wild species.
2. Field sanitation.
3. Use of balanced fertilizers.
B. Chemical control:
1. Topas (Penconazole) @ 0.5 ml/ L of water.
Or
2. Topsin-M (Thiophanate methyl) @ 1.0 gm/ L of water.
Or
3. Score (Difenaconazole) @ 0.5 ml/ L of water.
Or
4. Derosal (Carbendazim) @ 1 gm/L of water.
C. No resistant variety has been developed till now.
ROOT KNOT NEMATODE OF VEGETABLES
Introduction:
This nematode was discovered by Berkeley in England in the year 1855 on
cucumber in a glass house. This is the most important nematode attacking plant roots on
world basis. The nematode is obligate sedentary endoparasite. It attacks frequently the
plants of solanaceae and cucurbitaceae vegetables i.e. tomato, brinjal, chillies, cucumber,
muskmelon and pumpkin etc. Losses are 10 to 100% (crop failure). More than 100 root
knot nematodes species have been described and their host plants exceed over 3000 plant
species belonging to various families. The nematode is present world over including
Pakistan. Only six species of rook knot nematodes has been reported from Pakistan.
Symptoms:
Yellowing (chlorosis), stunting, wilting and smalling of leaves and intermodal distance of
plant is shortened. During summer the infected plants show wilting during the mid-day.
Medium to large size galls are found on roots. Galls are due to hyperplasia and
hypertrophy of cortical cells produced in response of the nematode. They disturb the
uptake of water, minerals and nutrient by the plant roots. Ultimately there is less number
of feeder roots development. Less number of fruits with poor quality are harvested. At
later stages the affected plants may be killed. The injuries to the plant roots made by
nematodes may help in the entry of other plant pathogens fungi like Fusarium spp. And
bacteria that stimulate severe root infections.
Causal organism:
Meloidogyne spp. (root knot nematode) six species have been reported in Pakistan while
more than 100 species have been reported world over.
Disease cycle:
Nematode is present in soil and usually present in sandy, sandy loam and loamy soils.
The nematode (in the roots, eggs masses or juveniles) may be carried out by nursery
seedlings and also by human activities in the field like ploughing, cultivation, hoeing, by
human shoes and by tractor tyres. The 2 nd stage juveniles attack the plant roots near the
root tip and enter roots intercellularly. A single female nematode may produce from 500
to more than 1000 eggs. Life cycle of the nematode is 21-30 days at temperature 20-30
o
C.
Management:
A-Cultural practices:
i) Use of nematode free soils for nursery development or crop raising.
ii) Crop rotation with suitable non host crops.
iii) Solarization of nematode infested soil in Punjab during the months of May
and June. Plough and leave the field open for 7 days. Then repeat the process.
iv) Deep ploughing.
v) Eradication of weeds because they serve as alternate host of the nematode.
B-Chemical control:
(i) Furadon (Carbofuran) @ 4-10 kg/ acre, broadcast in the rows, ridges or field.
(ii) Rugby (Cadusaphos) @ 3-5 kg/ acre broadcast in the rows, ridges or field.
C-Biological control:
(i) Verticullium chlamydosproium (Fungus) effective method in micro-plots and
nursery beds.
(ii) Pasteuria penetrans (Bacterium) effective method in micro-plots and
nursery beds.
(iii) Use of enemy plants of nematodes (neem, marigold, mustard etc.) with in the
main crop.
D-Use of Resistant Varieties.
SHISHAM DECLINE
Introduction:-
Dalbergia sisso is known as shisham or tahly in Pakistan. The tree is found in
India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. In Pakistan the
shisham die back and decline was reported during 1998 from Punjab. The incidence of
disease increases from North to South in Punjab, the disease is more in the canal irrigated
areas as compared with the rain fed areas. The disease was maximum (20%) in Suleman
Ranges of Dera Ghazi Khan.
Symptoms:
The disease manifests itself with the symptoms of drooping and yellowing of
leaves, leaf chlorosis, gradual drying up of entire crown resembling wilt, drought effect,
thinning of crown and root rots in the affected roots. The leaves drop off rendering the
bare branches-die back. The affected trees die within a few months. The attacked trees
are blown by wind. When the bark of the trees near collar region is removed, it is brown
in colour and later on it turns dark brown and dead, the disease progresses in both sides
upward to the trunk and the downward to crown roots. Due to the damage of vascular
system of plants uptake of water and nutrients from soil is halted.
The Causal Organism:-
Botryodiplodia theobromae
Disease Cycle:-
The fungus is soil and air borne. The conidia may be carried out by insects and
rain drop splashes. The pathogen may enter during injuries made during pruning or other
cultural operations.
Management of the Disease: -
A. Cultural Control
1. Use of healthy stumps/ seedling from a reliable source.
2. The dead plants/ trees must be removed from the field.
3. Controlled irrigation of the plants/ trees.
3. Avoid injuries to the plants/ trees, if necessary apply fungicides after pruning.
B. Chemical control:
1- Dithan M-45 @ 2 gm/ liter of water.
2- Shincar @ 0.5 ml/ liter of water.
3- Topsin-M @ 2 gm/ liter of water.
4- Score @ 0.5 gm/ liter of water.
5- Antracol @ 10 gm/ liter of water.
