measurement

The user's guide

Radar level

Peter Devine Radar level measurement The user's guide

 Radar level measurement
- The users guide
Peter Devine

written by
Peter Devine
additional information
Karl Grießbaum
type setting and layout
Liz Moakes
final drawings and diagrams
Evi Brucker

© VEGA Controls / P Devine / 2000

All rights reseved. No part of this book may reproduced in any way, or by any means, without prior
permissio in writing from the publisher:
VEGA Controls Ltd, Kendal House, Victoria Way, Burgess Hill, West Sussex, RH 15 9NF England.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Devine, Peter
Radar level measurement - The user´s guide
1. Radar
2. Title
621.3´848

ISBN 0-9538920-0-X

Cover by LinkDesign, Schramberg.

Printed in Great Britain at VIP print, Heathfield, Sussex.
 Contents

Foreword ix
Acknowledgement xi
Introduction xiii

Part I
1. History of radar 1
2. Physics of radar 13
3. Types of radar 33
1. CW-radar 33
2. FM - CW 36
3. Pulse radar 39

Part II
4. Radar level measurement 47
1. FM - CW 48
2. PULSE radar 54
3. Choice of frequency 62
4. Accuracy 68
5. Power 74

5. Radar antennas 77
1. Horn antennas 81
2. Dielectric rod antennas 92
3. Measuring tube antennas 101
4. Parabolic dish antennas 106
5. Planar array antennas 108
Antenna energy patterns 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanical installation 115
1. Horn antenna (liquids) 115
2. Rod antenna (liquids) 117
3. General consideration (liquids) 120
4. Stand pipes & measuring tubes 127
5. Platic tank tops and windows 134
6. Horn antenna (solids) 139
B. Radar level installation cont. 141
1. safe area applications 141
2. Hazardous area applications 144
 5. Radar antennas

The function of an antenna in a radar Antenna basics

level transmitter is to direct the maxi- An important aspect of an antenna is
mum amount of microwave energy directivity. Directivity is the ability of
towards the level being measured and the antenna to direct the maximum
to capture the maximum amount of amount of radiated microwave energy
energy from the return echoes for towards the liquid or solid we wish to
analysis within the electronics. measure.
Antennas for level measurement No matter how well the antenna is
come in five basic forms: designed, there will be some
microwave energy being radiated in
every direction. The goal is to max-
· Horn (cone) antenna imise the directivity.
· Dielectric rod antenna Fig 5.1 shows the pattern of radiated
· Measuring tube antenna energy from a typical horn antenna.
(stand pipes/ bypass tubes etc.) This is a 250 mm (10") horn antenna
· Parabolic reflector antenna operating at a frequency of 5.8 GHz.
· Planar array antenna The measurements are made some
distance from the antenna in what is
Horn antennas and dielectric rod called the far field zone. It is clear that
antennas are already commonly used most of the energy is contained within
within process level measurement. We the main lobe, but also there is a rea-
will be discussing how these designs sonable amount of energy contained
have been developed for increasingly within the various side lobes.
arduous process conditions and how Technical information and sales lit-
antenna efficiencies have been erature on radar level transmitters
improved. The horn antenna and ver- quote beam angles for different anten-
sions of the dielectric rod antenna are nas. Clearly there is not a tight beam.
also used in measuring tube applica- The convention is to measure the angle
tions within the process industry. at which the microwave energy has
Parabolic antennas and planar array reduced to 50 percent of the value at
antennas have been applied to fiscal the central axis of the beam.
measurement radar systems rather than This is quoted in decibels:-
for level measurement within process the - 3dB point.
vessels. We will discuss the design of
these antennas although at present their
use in process vessels is limited.

77
 Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

90

120 60
Max.: 20,4 dB

150 30

180 0
0 10 20 30

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 14,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 21,6 dB

Extent of measured microwave energy showing

main lobe and side lobes

The - 3 dB point is the beam angle i.e. the energy

has reduced to 50%

Side lobe energy

Fig 5.1 Typical radiation pattern from a radar level transmitter

Radiation patterns of different antennas and radar frequencies are compared at the
end of this chapter.

78
 5. Radar antennas

A measure of how well the antenna by the antenna in a specific direction to

is directing the microwave energy is the power per unit of solid angle if the
called the ‘antenna gain’. total power was radiated isotropically,
Antenna gain is a ratio between the that is to say, equally in all directions.
power per unit of solid angle radiated

isotropic power

directional power

Isotropic equivalent with total power

radiating equally in all directions

Directional power from antenna

Fig 5.2 Illustration of antenna gain

Antenna gain ‘G’ can be calculated as follows:

2
πxD 4π x A
G = ηx ( λ
) = ηx λ2
[Eq. 5.1]

Where η = aperture efficiency The aperture efficiencies of radar

level antennas are typically between
D = antenna diameter.* η = 0.6 and η = 0.8.
It is clear from equation 5.1 that
A = antenna area.* the directivity improves in proportion
to the antenna area. At a given fre-
λ = microwave wavelength * quency, a larger antenna has a narrow-
er beam angle
* must be same units

79
 Also, we can see that the antenna means that a 26 GHz antenna is lighter
gain and hence directivity is inversely and easier to install for the same beam
proportional to the square of the wave- angle. However, as discussed in
length. Chapter 4, this is not the whole story
For a given size of antenna the beam when choosing the right transmitter for
angle will become narrower at higher an application.
frequencies (shorter wavelengths). For For a standard horn antenna the
example the beam angle of a 5.8 GHz beam angle φ, that is the angle to the
radar with a 200 mm (8") horn antenna minus 3 dB position, can be calculated
is almost equivalent to a 26 GHz radar using equation 5.2.
with a 50 mm (2") horn antenna. This

λ
Beam angle φ = 70° x
D
[Eq. 5.2]

The following graph shows horn anten- most common radar frequencies,
na diameter versus beam angle for the 5.8 GHz, 10 GHz and 26 GHz.

Antenna beam angles (diameter / frequency)

80
5.8 GHz
beam angle in degrees (-3dB)

10 GHz
60
26 GHz

40

20

0
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
antenna diameter, mm

Fig 5.3 Graph showing relation between horn antenna diameter and beam angle for
5.8 GHz, 10Ghz and 26GHz radar

80
 5. Radar antennas

1. Horn antennas
The metallic horn antenna or cone At the transition from the wave-
antenna is well proven for process level guide to the horn of the antenna the low
applications. The horn is mechanically dielectric material is machined to a
robust and in general it is virtually pointed cone. The angle of this cone
unaffected by condensation and prod- depends on the dielectric constant of
uct build up, especially at the lower the material. For example, ceramic has
radar frequencies such as 5.8 GHz. a sharper angle than PTFE.
There are variations in the internal The microwaves are emitted from
design of horn antennas. The this pointed cone in a controlled way
microwaves that are generated within and are then focused towards the target
the microwave module are transmitted by the metal horn.
down a high frequency cable for encou- After reflection from the product
pling into a waveguide. The metal surface, the returning echoes are
waveguide then directs the microwaves collected within the horn antenna for
towards the horn of the antenna. A low processing within the electronics.
dielectric material such as PTFE,
ceramic or glass is often used within
the waveguide.

Fig 5.4 The transition of

microwaves from the low
dielectric waveguide into the
metallic horn where they are
focused towards the product
being measured

81
Horn antenna design 1
Fig 5.5

1. HF Cable

1 2. Signal coupling

3. Waveguide (air filled)

2
Transition rectan-
3
4 gular to circular
cross section
5
6
7 4. PTFE transition
8
5. Glass waveguide
9
6. Metallic grid

7. Seal between glass

and PTFE

8. PTFE cone

9. Metal horn antenna

In this first design of horn antenna An antenna of this design is capable

the HF cable signal coupling is into an of withstanding process temperatures
air filled waveguide with a rectangular up to 250° C and up to 300 Bar.
cross section. The microwaves are A potential problem with the design
directed towards the antenna. There is a is the sealing between the PTFE and
transition from rectangular to circular glass on the process side. The thermal
cross section. At this point the wave- expansion of glass and PTFE are differ-
guide changes to PTFE with a ¼ wave- ent and it is possible for condensation
length step design. The waveguide is to get between the glass and PTFE and
then glass filled until it reaches the to affect the transmission and receipt of
inside of the antenna horn where it the microwave signals.
changes to a PTFE cone for the imped- The explosion proof design requires
ance matching into the vapour space in metallic grid around the glass of the
the horn waveguide at the joint between the
This PFTE cone in combination with housing casting and the flange casting.
the metallic horn focuses the
microwaves towards the target.

82
 5. Radar antennas
Horn antenna design 2
Fig 5.6

1. HF cable

2. Signal coupling
1
3. Waveguide
(PTFE filled)
2
3
4. Process seals Viton
4 or Kalrez

5 5. PTFE cone

6. Metallic horn
antenna
6

With this antenna design, the HF form for the transition into the horn
cable is encoupled into the PTFE mate- antenna. The PTFE cone and the metal-
rial inside the waveguide. The metal lic conical horn focus the microwaves
waveguide is welded to the flange and and collect the return signals in the
there are two process seals between the usual manner.
metal waveguide and the PTFE. These An antenna of this design is capable
seals protect the signal coupler from of withstanding a process temperature
the process. This seal material can be of 200° C + and a process pressure of
Viton for stainless steel horn antennas 40 Bar.
or Kalrez for Hastelloy C horn anten- This antenna design can also be used
nas. on very high temperature, ambient
There is a continuous transition for pressure applications with air or nitro-
the microwaves within a single piece of gen gas cooling of the antenna.
PTFE which is machined into a cone

83
Horn antenna design 2a
Fig 5.7 Very high temperature, ambient pressure applications.
Air/nitrogen cooling through flange

1. HF cable

1 2. Signal coupling

2 3. Waveguide
(PTFE filled)
3
4 4. Tappings for
air/nitrogen keeps
antenna area cool
Air / N2
5. Metallic horn
antenna

This adaptation of the previous furnace burden level and molten iron
antenna allows the antenna to be cooled ladle levels. The microwaves are unaf-
with air or nitrogen gas. fected by the air movement within the
This is achieved by drilling two horn area.
holes, 180° apart, laterally from the In addition to cooling, this air purg-
flange edge into the horn antenna next ing technique is also used for solids
to the PTFE cone. The flow of air or applications where very high levels of
nitrogen prevents hot gases from conductive dust, such as carbon, heavi-
affecting the PTFE and the viton seal ly coat the inside of the horn and cause
and it effectively cools the entire flange signal attenuation.
and horn area. Water purging has also been used
This technique has been used suc- where heavy product build up is
cessfully with very high temperatures, expected.
including 1500° C + in the steel indus-
try with applications such as blast

84
 5. Radar antennas
Horn antenna design 3
Fig 5.8 Special enamel coated antenna

1 1. Signal coupling
2
2. PTFE waveguide
3
4 3. PTFE flange face
5
4. PTFE seal
6
5. Lapped flange
7
6. Steel internals of
horn antenna

7. Enamelled coating

This antenna is also a development between the external cylinder and the
of the antenna design in Fig 5.6. internal horn.
The waveguide, PTFE transition The top of the cylinder has a flange
cone and process flange are standard. for sealing between the PTFE transition
The face of the flange is all PTFE. cone and the process flange and also
The difference is in the application between the glassed antenna and the
of a special enamel (glass) coated horn vessel nozzle. External studs hold the
that provides excellent process materi- enamel antenna to the process flange
als compatibility without resorting to and PTFE seals are used to provide
more expensive metals such as internal sealing.
Tantalum. The antenna is manufactured from
The external dimensions of the carbon steel with blue enamel coating
antenna represent a simple cylinder. which is identical to the enamel found
The internal dimensions of the antenna in glass lined vessels. It provides the
are identical to a standard horn antenna efficiency benefits of a horn antenna
(150 mm (6")) is illustrated. At the bot- with first class materials compatibility.
tom of the antenna there is a gradual lip

85
Horn antenna design 4
Fig 5.9 High temperature / high pressure antenna with ceramic waveguide

1. Connection to HF
cable from
1 microwave module

2 2. Coaxial tube to
signal coupling

3. Signal coupling in
ceramic waveguide
3

4 [Link]/ceramic
brazing seal
5
5. Graphite seal
6
6. Ceramic waveguide
cone

The above antenna has been stainless steel expands more than twice
designed with both high temperature as much as ceramic. A double graphite
and high pressure in mind. The seal is fitted on the process side of the
mechanical strength and sealing ability ‘vacon’ bush. The entire waveguide
of PTFE degrades at elevated tempera- assembly is laser welded to ensure that
ture and is therefore limited to about the transmitter is gas tight and that
200° C. differential thermal expansion is
This special design of radar has negligible.
a chemically and thermally stable In order to withstand constant pro-
ceramic (Al2O3) waveguide within a cess temperatures of 400° C, the elec-
stainless steel or Hastelloy C horn tronics housing of the radar is mechani-
antenna and flange. The ceramic cally isolated from the high process
waveguide is fused to a ‘vacon’ steel temperature by a temperature extension
bush using a special brazing technique. tube. The microwave module is con-
‘Vacon’ is used because it has a nected via the HF cable and an air
coefficient of thermal expansion that is coaxial tube to the signal coupler in the
similar to ceramic, whereas normal ceramic waveguide.

86
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.10 Close up of ceramic waveguide assembly

1
1. HF cable (coaxial)
2
3
2. Signal coupling
4
5 3. Ceramic waveguide

6 4. Brazing of ceramic
to vacon

5. Vacon bush

6. Graphite seal

7. Metallic horn
antenna
7

Fig 5.11 This antenna design is capable

of with standing 160 Bar at
400° C with dual graphite seals.
Graphite seals have proved to be
superior to tantalum seals

Ceramic signal coupling

Vacon/ceramic brazing

Graphite / Tantalum seal

87
Adapting horn antenna radars
a. Measurement through a PTFE window
Another possible variation of a horn constant of more that εr = 10, then it is
antenna radar is measurement through possible to measure through a low
a low dielectric window. We have dis- dielectric window or lens.
cussed Hastelloy, Tantalum and the Some antennas are manufactured
special enamel coated horn antenna. with a PTFE window as part of the
However, if a liquid is being measured construction.
and it is conductive or has a dielectric

Antenna housing

Horn antenna

Process flange
PTFE window
Fig 5.12 Horn antenna radar is constructed with a metal housing around the antenna
and a PTFE process ‘window’

Fig 5.13 Variations of this design include the use of cone shaped windows. The cone can
point towards the horn or towards the process

88
 5. Radar antennas

b. Horn antenna -
waveguide extension
In the first section of Chapter 6,
Radar level installations, we discuss
how horn antenna radars should be
installed. It is recommended that the
end of the antenna is a minimum of
10 mm inside the vessel. A 150 mm
(6") horn antenna is 205 mm (8") long.
If the nozzle is longer than 200 mm,
we should consider a waveguide exten-
sion piece between the radar flange and
the horn antenna. Waveguide exten-
sions should only be used with highly
reflective products.
Fig 5.14 Extended waveguide horn
c. Horn antenna - antenna to enable measurement
bent waveguide extensions in long nozzles or through a
As well as simple waveguide exten-
concrete tank or sump roof
sions it is possible to bend waveguide
extensions in order to avoid obstruc-
tions or to utilise side entry flanges.
A simple 90° bend or an ‘S’ shaped
extension tube are possible.
The waveguide extensions should be
free from any internal welds and the
minimum radius of curvature should be Waveguide
200 mm. extension with ‘S’
bend

Fig 5.15 Waveguide extensions

with bends. The direction
of the polarization is
important

Waveguide extension with 90° bend

89
High frequency radar antennas
The majority of antennas in this A special patented high frequency
chapter are designed for microwave antenna design from VEGA minimises
frequencies of between 5.8 GHz and the potential problems associated with
10 GHz. Later in this chapter, we dis- small waveguide assemblies.
cuss the use of radar in measuring The encoupling is made within a
tubes where there is a minimum critical small PTFE waveguide to establish a
diameter for each frequency. A measur- single mode. As the microwaves travel
ing tube is a waveguide. The minimum towards the horn antenna, there is a
theoretical tube diameter for a 5.8 GHz carefully designed transition that
radar is 31 mm. increases the diameter of the PTFE
At a higher frequency the minimum waveguide while maintaining the single
diameter of a waveguide is smaller. mode.
At this minimum diameter, the The increased diameter of the PTFE
microwaves are established within the waveguide reduces the adverse effects
waveguide with a single mode and of condensation and build up where the
hence a single velocity. tapered cone of the waveguide enters
As the waveguide diameter increas- the metallic horn of the antenna.
es in size, more modes become estab- Compare this design with horn
lished for the given frequency. antenna design 2, Fig 5.6. The 5.8 GHz
Measurement problems will be radar does not need a transition in the
encountered if there are multiple modes waveguide diameter and the angle of
within an antenna waveguide. This is the metallic horn is not as sharp as for
because with different modes the the high frequency radar.
microwaves travel at different veloci- Viton or Kalrez process seals are fit-
ties in the waveguide and therefore a ted between the PTFE and stainless
single target will reflect more than one steel body of the waveguide.
return echo. Measurement will become Extended versions of the high
inaccurate or impossible. frequency antenna design involve
For this reason, the encoupling of a lengthening the HF cable within a
high frequency radar must be made into stainless steel extension tube and weld-
a small waveguide. The small wave- ing the waveguide assembly to the end
guide assemblies of high frequency of the extension tube.
radar are susceptible to contamination
by condensation and build up when
compared with lower frequencies such
as 5.8 GHz.

90
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.16 High frequency (26GHz) horn antenna design

1. HF cable from
microwave module

2. Signal coupling into

smaller diameter PTFE
waveguide assembly

3. Carefully designed
transition from small
diameter to larger
1 diameter without
affecting the waveguide
mode
2
4. Viton or Kalrez process
seals between PTFE and
3
stainless steel of the
4 waveguide
5. Cone shape of PTFE
waveguide for the
transition into the
5
metallic horn of the
antenna
6. Metallic horn antenna
of high frequency radar.
6
It has a sharper angle
than the lower frequency
radars

91
2. Dielectric rod antennas
The dielectric rod antenna is an The reflected echoes are captured in
extremely useful option when applying a similar fashion for processing by the
radar level technology to modern radar electronics.
process vessels. Dielectric rods can be Rod antennas should only be used
used in vessel nozzles as small as on liquids and slurries and not on pow-
40 mm (1½") and they are manufac- ders and granular products.
tured from PP, PTFE or ceramic wetted There are some important considera-
parts. tions when applying rod antenna
This means that, normally, radar radars.
level transmitters can be retro-fitted First of all, the tapered section of the
into existing tank nozzles and they rod must be entirely within the vessel.
have low cost materials compatibility If the tapered section is in a nozzle,
with most aggressive liquids including it will cause ‘ringing’ noise that will
acids, alkalis and solvents. effectively blind the radar. This is
The design of dielectric rod antennas explained more fully in Chapter 6.
has been refined in recent years. Also, it can be seen from Fig 5.17
Essentially the microwaves are fed that the microwaves rely on the rod
from the microwave module through an antenna being clean. If a rod antenna is
HF cable to a signal coupler in the coated in viscous, conductive and adhe-
waveguide. As with the horn antenna sive products, the antenna efficiency
the waveguide can be air filled or filled will deteriorate very quickly.
with a low dielectric material such as With the horn antenna product build
PTFE . up is not a particular problem.
The waveguide feeds the However, product build up works
microwaves to the antenna. The against the reliable functioning of a rod
microwaves pass down the parallel antenna radar.
section of the rod until they reach the
tapered section of the rod. The tapered
section of the rod acts like a lens and it
focuses the microwaves towards the
product being measured. The size and
shape of the dielectric rod depends on
the frequency of the microwaves being
transmitted.

92
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.17 Dielectric rod antenna

The microwaves travel down the inactive

parallel section of the rod towards the
tapered section .

The tapered section of the rod focuses the

microwaves toward the liquid being
measured .

It is very important that all of the tapered

section of the rod must be inside the vessel

It is not good practice to allow a rod

antenna to be immersed in the product

If a rod antenna is coated in viscous,

conductive and adhesive product, the
antenna efficiency will deteriorate

93
Rod antenna design 1
Fig 5.18 Rod antenna for short process nozzles

1
2 1. HF cable
3
2. Process connection
PVDF boss

3. Signal coupling
4 within PTFE/PP
filled waveguide

4. Inactive section
with metallic wave-
guide, PTFE/PP
inner and outer
parts

5. Solid PTFE/PP
active tapered
section of antenna
focuses the
microwaves towards
the product surface

This rod antenna is a simple and low The HF cable from the microwave
cost design that provides a radar level module is coupled into PTFE/PP inside
transmitter with good materials com- a metallic tube that acts as a wave-
patibility. It is ideal for vented and low guide. This metallic tube is totally
pressure vessels such as acid and alkali enclosed within the PTFE/PP parallel
tanks. It is designed for use in short section of the antenna. The microwaves
1½" BSP / NPT process nozzles. The pass down the metallic waveguide
nozzle height should not exceed 60 mm directly to the tapered section of the
(2½"). antenna where they are focused
The process connection is a 1½" towards the product being measured.
PVDF boss and the antenna is
polypropylene (PP) or PTFE.

94
 5. Radar antennas
Rod antenna design 2
Fig 5.19 Rod antenna with solid PTFE extendible rod

1. HF cable
1
2. Signal coupling
2
3 3. Air waveguide
4
5 4. PTFE cone

5. Process connection

6 6. Solid PTFE parallel

section length can
be extended

7. Solid PTFE tapered

7 section

With this design of rod antenna the If this type of antenna is to be used
signal coupling is into an air filled in a long nozzle, the parallel section of
waveguide. The microwaves are direct- the solid rod is extended to ensure that
ed towards the antenna. There is a tran- the tapered section is entirely within
sition to PTFE via a cone shaped ele- the vessel.
ment. The microwaves continue An extended, solid PTFE rod anten-
through the PTFE waveguide to the na can suffer from ‘ringing’ noise
solid PTFE dielectric rod. The tapered caused by microwave leakage from the
section of the rod focuses the parallel section resonating within the
microwaves towards the product being nozzle. See Fig 5.20.
measured.

95
Fig 5.20 Extended rod antenna in solid PTFE. This design can suffer from ‘ringing’
noise caused by leakage of microwave energy from the parallel section of the
solid PTFE rod resonating in the vessel nozzle

In theory, the microwaves should Also the PTFE expands at elevated

travel within the parallel section for the temperatures and under certain process
entire length until it reaches the tapered conditions it is possible for the rod sec-
section. However, in practice, some of tions to detach.
the microwave energy escapes from the The potential problems of solid
parallel sides. PTFE rod antennas have been solved
Some solid PTFE rod antennas by the latest designs. It is important to
are supplied with screw - on extendible have a completely inactive parallel sec-
antennas. tion within a vessel nozzle. This is
In addition to the ‘ringing’ noise achieved by special screening or signal
problem described, this design can suf- coupling beyond the nozzle.
fer from condensation forming between
the rod sections causing signal
attenuation.

96
 5. Radar antennas
Rod antenna design 3
Fig 5.21 Extended rod antenna with inactive section and signal coupling below nozzle
level

1. HF cable

1 2. Rod extension
casting
(metal within PTFE)
2
3. Signal coupling at
the bottom of the
rod extension

4. Inactive section
3

4 5. Solid PTFE tapered

‘active’ section of
rod antenna

This antenna is designed for use in tapered sections are sealed together and
nozzles of either 100 mm length or are designed to withstand a process
250 mm length. All wetted parts of the temperature of 150° C .
antenna are PTFE. The parallel section This antenna design is used with
that is designed to be within the nozzle 1½" BSP (M) stainless steel bosses or
has a PTFE coating on a cast metal with PTFE faced flanged transmitters.
tube. The flanged version is designed for
Below this parallel section is the maximum chemical resistance to acids,
active, solid PTFE, tapered antenna. alkalis and solvents. The flange face is
The HF cable from the microwave PTFE with a tight seal between the
module is fed through the metal casting flange PTFE and the top of the PTFE
and the signal coupling is made just covered inactive section.
above the tapered rod. The parallel and

97
Extended rod antenna Extended rod antenna
for 250 mm nozzle for 100 mm nozzle

Fig 5.22 Extended rod antenna with inactive section and signal coupling below nozzle
level. All wetted parts are PTFE on the flanged version of this antenna

For less arduous applications a stainless steel extension tube is used instead of the
PTFE covered tube. The tapered section of the antenna is made of polyphenylene
sulphide (PPS).

Fig 5.23 Extended rod antenna with stainless steel inactive section and PPS rod antenna.
This is for less chemically arduous process conditions

98
 5. Radar antennas
Rod antenna design 4
Fig 5.24 Extended rod antenna with metallic grid waveguide extension within carbon
impregnated PTFE inactive rod. Tapered active section of virgin PTFE

1. HF cable
1 2. Signal coupling

2 3. PTFE waveguide
3
4 4. Screwed connection
5
5. Carbon impregnated
PTFE antenna parallel
6 section and flange face

6. Internal metal grid acts

as extended waveguide
and prevents microwave
7 leakage from the
parallel section of the
antenna

7. PTFE waveguide
8 8. Virgin PTFE tapered
antenna

This design of dielectric rod antenna as an extension to the waveguide.

is for use with flanged process connec- Inside the grid the waveguide is virgin
tions. PTFE, outside the grid the PTFE is car-
The HF cable is connected into a bon impregnated.
PTFE filled waveguide which directs At the end of the parallel section,
the microwave energy towards the rod there is a transition into a solid PTFE
antenna. There is a PTFE male screwed tapered rod which provides the imped-
fitting at the end of the waveguide ance matching and focusing of the
within the process flange. The fabricat- microwaves towards the product being
ed, one piece, rod antenna screws on to measured.
this connection. This antenna has the option for
The antenna flange facing and the 100 mm or 250 mm nozzle lengths. As
parallel section of the antenna have car- already discussed, the tapered section
bon impregnated PTFE wetted parts. must be entirely within the vessel.
Inside the parallel section of the rod
there is a tubular metallic grid that acts

99
Rod antenna design 5
Fig 5.25 This is a high temperature ceramic rod antenna design. There is temperature
separation between the electronics and the signal coupling (similar to the high
temperature horn antenna Fig 5.10). The ceramic rod has a sharper taper than
the equivalent PTFE rod

1. Signal coupling

2. Ceramic waveguide

3. Process seal (graphite or

tantalum)

4. Active tapered ceramic

rod

Rod antennas are available with the be taken when installing ceramic rods
dielectric rod manufactured from because they are brittle and prone to
ceramic (Al2O3). accidental damage.
Ceramic has good chemical and
thermal resistance. However, care must

100
 5. Radar antennas

3. Measuring tube antennas

As discussed, conical horn antennas resistant plastics such as PTFE and
and dielectric rod antennas are used polypropylene.
widely within the process industry. However, there are applications
In general horn antennas are within the process industry where the
mechanically more robust and do not installation of an antenna directly with-
suffer as much from build up or heavy in a vessel is not suitable for reasons of
condensation. vessel design or radar functionality. In
On the other hand, dielectric rods these cases a measuring tube (bypass
are smaller, weigh less and can be con- tube or a stand pipe within the vessel)
structed from low cost but chemically may be an alternative.

Bypass tube and stand pipes are used for the following reasons:

· Highly agitated liquid surfaces - · Small vessels - stand pipes or

a stilling tube ensures that the bypass tubes can be used for
radar sees a calm surface with measurement in very small
no scattering of the echo signal process vessels such as vacuum
receivers. There may not be
· Low dielectric liquids such as enough head space for a rod
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - antenna or a suitable connection
a stand pipe concentrates and for a horn antenna. A small bore
guides the microwaves to the tube can be used with a radar
product surface giving the
maximum signal strength from · Foam - a stilling tube can often
liquids with low levels of prevent foam affecting the
reflected energy measurement

· Toxic and dangerous chemicals - · Replacing existing floats and

a stand pipe installation makes a displacers - radar can be
small antenna size possible. installed directly into existing
This can be used to look through bypass tubes
a full bore ball valve into the
stand pipe.
The instrument can be isolated
from the process for
maintenance

101
Measuring tube radar 1 - horn antennas
Fig 5.26 Installation of horn antenna radars into stand pipes or bypass tube

DN50 DN80 DN100 DN150

∅ 50 ∅ 80 ∅ 100 ∅ 150

Horn antenna radars are most com- For 80 mm and above, the appropri-
monly used in measuring tube level ate horn antenna is attached and this is
applications. Stilling tube internal designed to fit inside the tube.
diameters can be 40 mm (1 ½"), 50 mm As discussed in Chapter 2, Physics
(2"), 80 mm (3"), 100 mm (4") and 150 of radar and Chapter 6, Radar level
mm (6"). Larger tubes are possible. installations, the linear polarization of
Normally, the 40 mm and 50 mm the radar must be directed towards the
tubes do not require a horn. The PTFE tube breather hole or mixing slots, or
or ceramic waveguide impedance towards the process connections in the
matching cone can be installed directly case of a bypass tube.
into the tube.

102
 5. Radar antennas
Measuring tube radar 2 - offset rod antennas
Fig 5.27 Offset rod antenna for use on 50 mm and 80 mm measuring tubes

1. HF cable
1
2. Signal coupling

3. PTFE faced flange

4. Offset short solid PTFE

rod antenna
2
3

The standard length dielectric rod This design is similar in construction

antennas should not be installed within to rod antenna design 3. All wetted
measuring tubes. There is a high level parts are in PTFE and the short antenna
of ‘ringing’ noise which severely is off centre. This asymmetric design
reduces the efficiency of the antenna. produces improved signal to noise
However, a special design of short, ratios within a measuring tube.
offset rod antenna can be used on small
diameter tubes (50 mm and 80 mm).

103
Microwave velocity within measuring tube
The speed of microwaves within a The microwaves bounce off the
measuring tube is apparently slower sides of the tube and small currents are
when compared to the velocity in free induced in the walls of the tube. For a
space. The degree to which the running circular tube, or waveguide, the
time slows down depends on the diam- velocity change is calculated by the
eter of the tube and the wavelength of following equation :
the signal.

cwg is the speed of microwaves in

{ }
2 the measuring tube / waveguide
λ co
cwg = co x 1- is the speed of light in free
( 1.71d )2 λ
space
is the wavelength of the
microwaves
[Eq. 5.3]
d is the diameter of the measur-
ing tube

Fig 5.28 The transit time of microwaves

is slower within a stilling tube.
This effect must be compensated
within the software of the radar
level transmitter

104
 5. Radar antennas

There are different modes of propa- Equation 5.4 shows the relationship
gation of microwaves within a wave- between critical diameter and wave-
guide. However, an important value is length. For example, 5.8 GHz has a
the minimum diameter of pipe that will wavelength λ of ~ 52 mm. The mini-
allow microwave propagation. mum theoretical tube diameter is
The value of the critical diameter, dc = 31 mm
dc , depends upon the wavelength λ of With a frequency of 26 GHz, a
the microwaves: The higher the fre- wavelength of 11.5 mm, the minimum
quency of the microwaves, the smaller tube diameter is dc = 6.75 mm. In prac-
the minimum diameter of measuring tice the diameter should be higher. The
tube that can be used. diameter for 5.8 GHz should be at least
40 mm.

dc = λ
1.71
[Eq. 5.4]

100
% speed of light, c

80

60

40

20

0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Tube diameter / wavelength, d / λ
Fig 5.29 Graph showing the effect of measuring tube diameter on the propagation speed
of microwaves

Higher frequencies such as 26 GHz The installation requirements of

will be more focused within larger radar level transmitters in measuring
diameter stilling tubes. This will min- tubes are covered in the next chapter.
imise false echoes from the stilling tube
wall.

105
4. Parabolic dish antennas
Fig 5.30 Typical parabolic antenna

1. Feed from microwave

module

2. Parabolic reflector -
secondary antenna
1
3. Primary antenna

4. Focus of parabolic
reflector
2

3
4

The subject of this book is radar The main structure of a parabolic

level measurement in process vessels. antenna is the parabolic reflector dish.
Although they are usually applied to This is usually of stainless steel con-
custody transfer applications and not struction and is designed to focus the
process vessel applications, the subject microwaves as accurately as possible.
of antennas would not be complete The microwaves are fed through the
without discussion of parabolic anten- centre of the dish to the primary anten-
nas. na that is in front of the dish at the
The parabolic antenna is well known focus. The microwave energy is trans-
to all. The parabolic form is widely mitted from the primary antenna back
seen from satellite television dishes and towards the parabolic dish, the sec-
radio telescopes to car headlights and ondary antenna, which reflects the
torch beams. energy and focuses it towards the prod-
uct being measured.

106
 5. Radar antennas

The reflected energy is captured by antenna. This can reduce the antenna
the dish and focused back to the prima- efficiency.
ry antenna for echo analysis. Parabolic antennas have been
Parabolic antennas are used widely applied to bitumen storage tanks where
in custody transfer applications and are build up on the parabolic dish is said to
well proven in large storage tanks. cause minimum signal attenuation. If
The benefits of parabolic antennas in the primary antenna was coated in vis-
these applications are clear. The good cous product, this would cause a major
focusing of the paraboloid shape problem to the signal strength.
ensures high antenna gain or directivi- In conclusion, the parabolic antenna
ty. Also this narrow beam angle results has a niche application in fiscal mea-
in higher sensitivity. surement of large, slow moving prod-
However, parabolic antennas are uct tanks, but is not suitable for the
large, heavy, relatively complex and arduous conditions that are prevalent in
expensive to manufacture. These fac- the wide variety of vessels within the
tors limit the use of parabolic antennas process industries.
in most process level applications.
The central feed to the primary
antenna at the focus of the dish causes
a blind area directly in front of the

Pic 1. Parabolic antennas have been

around since the beginning of
radar

107
5. Planar array antennas
Fig 5.31 Planar antenna - side view

1
1. Electronics housing

2. Process flange
2
3. Antenna feed

4. Stainless steel back

5. Microwave absorbing
material
3
6. Microwave patches

7. PTFE process seal

5
6
7

Planar array antennas were original- The construction of a planar array

ly designed and built for aerospace antenna for a radar level transmitter is
radar applications. When the nose cone quite complex. The antenna is backed
of a modern jet fighter is removed, it with a round stainless steel disk that
reveals a flat circular disk faced with provides rigidity and strength to the
dielectric material and covered with assembly. The steel disk is faced with a
small slots instead of the more ‘tradi- microwave absorbing material. This
tional’ parabolic metal dish. This flat material ensures that the microwave
disk is typical of the planar array anten- energy is directed towards the process
nas which have been developed for use and that there is no ‘ringing’ noise
on radar level transmitters. interference from microwave energy
Planar array antennas have the bouncing off the steel back plate.
advantage of being relatively small and
light in weight especially when com-
pared with parabolic antennas.

108
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.32 Cut away of planar array antenna for radar level transmitter

1. Stainless steel back to

antenna provides rigidity

2. Microwave feed through

antenna back into feed
1 network to microwave
2 patches

3. Microwave absorbing
material prevents
3 ringing from stainless
4 steel back

4. Microwave patches with

5 low dielectric layers
between them focus the
microwaves from each
element of the array

5. PTFE process seal with

anti-static elements

The microwaves pass in a common Finally, the microwave elements and

feed from the microwave module the bonding materials that form the
through the stainless steel and absorp- structure of the planar antenna are pro-
tion material to a feed network across tected by a PTFE process seal covering
the area of the planar antenna. A pattern the face of the antenna. Additional anti-
of microwave patches are fed from this static material is used for hazardous
network. area applications.
There is a pattern of microwave ele- Planar antennas can be designed
ments across the area of the antenna. with good focusing of the microwaves
Each element is built up of three or and minimal side lobes. As well as
more microwave patches with dielec- applications within vessels, they can be
tric material between. This forms a used for measuring tube applications.
multiple microwave array with many
individual elements transmitting from
the face of the planar antenna.

109
Antenna energy patterns
At the beginning of this chapter we directivity and minimise the effect of
stated that the definition of ‘beam side lobes.
angle’ is the angle at which the The metallic horn (or cone) antenna
microwave energy measured at the cen- and the dielectric rod antenna are the
tre line of the radar beam has reduced most practical for process level mea-
to 50% or minus 3 dB. surement. The following pages show
We discussed directivity and antenna antenna radiation patterns for different
gain and stated that even the best antenna types, frequencies and sizes.
designed antennas have side lobes of These can be summarised as follows :
energy. The aim is to maximize the

· Larger horn antennas have more focused beam angles

· Dielectric
antennas
rod antennas have more side lobes than horn

· For a given size of horn antenna - the higher the frequency

the more focused the beam angle

1. Comparison of horn antenna beam angle with horn

diameter
The following diagrams show the comparison of 100 mm, 150 mm and 250
mm (4",6" & 10") horn antennas at 5.8 GHz

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.33
90
Horn antenna
120 60
100mm (4"),
Max.: 14,3 dB
frequency 5.8GHz,
beam angle 32°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 32,1 deg.
side lobe suppression : 16,9 dB

110
 5. Radar antennas

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.34
90
Horn antenna
120 60
150mm (6"),
Max.: 15,4 dB
frequency 5.8GHz,
Beam angle 27.9°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 27,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 20,9 dB

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.35
Horn antenna
90
250mm (10"),
120 60
Max.: 20,4 dB frequency 5.8GHz,
Beam angle 14.9°
150 30

180 0
0 10 20 30

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 14,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 21,6 dB

111
2 Comparison of dielectric rod antenna with horn antenna
The following show a 5.8 GHz horn Although the beam angles are
antenna compared with a 5.8 GHz rod similar, the rod has more significant
antenna. side lobes.

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.36
90
Dielectric rod
120 60 antenna, 5.8 GHz.
Max.: 15,2 dB
Beam angle 32°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 32,0 deg.
side lobe suppression : 14,6 dB

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.37
90
150mm (6"), horn
120 60
antenna, 5.8 GHz.
Max.: 15,4 dB
Beam angle 27.9°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 27,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 20,9 dB

112
 5. Radar antennas

3 Frequency differences and beam angles

The following diagrams show the antenna. These should be compared
beam angle of 26 GHz radar with a with the previous 5.8 GHz horn
40 mm (1½" ) and 80 mm (3") horn antenna patterns.

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.38
90
40 mm (1½") horn
Max.: 19,3 dB
120 60 antenna, 26 GHz.
Beam angle 18.2°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 18,2 deg.
side lobe suppression : 17,2 dB

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.39
90
80 mm (3") horn
120 60 antenna, 26 GHz.
Max.: 24,3 dB
Beam angle 9.4°
150 30

180 0
0 10 20 30

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 9,4 deg.
side lobe suppression : 22,1 dB

113