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WRITING SKILLS BWS 1102

LEVEL 2

UNIT 1

STYLE: formal and informal style

When you write a text your aim is to always express your ideas clearly in a way that
your audience can understand. The choice of words you make while writing defines
your style. Style is your way of adapting your language to suit different occasions.
Style can be either formal or informal.

When writing, you adapt your language to the following points:

- Your aim – the purpose of your message.
- Your attitude – the way you feel about the topic.
- Your audience – your readers.
- Your situation – the time and place.

Voice and tone in style

Voice in writing is the writer’s personal way of talking to the reader. It helps the
reader to imagine a real person speaking from the text. Voice in writing can express
many different attitudes and feelings which are known as tones. A tone can sound
happy, angry, sad, excited, serious, sentimental, surprised, shocked, etc.

While in spoken communication you can raise, lower or alter your voice to express
your feelings, in written communication your words, sentence structure and
punctuation do the job of expressing how you feel about the topic. Careful choice of
words is therefore the key to creating the intended tone.

Formal vs Informal

In written communication language can be formal, informal or somewhere in

between. The level of formality depends on the type of document and your
audience. Formal language is used in serious essays, official reports, research
papers, some literally criticism and speeches on serious or solemn occasions. On the
other hand, informal language is used in friendly letters, newspaper and magazine
articles, novels, short stories, plays, emails, etc.
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Features of formal and informal English

FORMAL INFORMAL

1. Words:

a) Longer words, e.g. intelligent a) Shorter words, e.g. smart

b) Rare words, e.g. incendiarism b) Common words, e.g., arson
c) Precise, e.g., unimpressive c) Imprecise, e.g., so-so
d) Specialized, e.g., apiarist d) General, e.g., beekeeper
e) Serious, e.g. Please calm down. e) Casual, e.g., Cool it!
f) Restrained, e.g. That’s very f) Exaggerated, e.g., That’s fantastic!
commendable!

2. Spellings:

a) Full spellings, e.g., should not a) Contracted or shortened, e.g.,

b) Conventional, e.g. I want to go. shouldn’t
b) I wanna go.

3. Grammar:

a) Complex, e.g. The woman who a) Simple, e.g. The woman was
wrote the story was Jamaican. Jamaican and she wrote the story.
b) Complete, e.g. It is chilly today! b) Fragmented, e.g., Chilly today!
c) Explicit/direct, e.g. What he just did c) Implicit/indirect, e.g., Amazing!
was amazing!

Note: Formal language usually creates a serious tone while informal language
creates a friendlier, more personal one. Always consider your audience and
situation before deciding whether to go formal or informal. In informal situations, a
formal style may sound stiff or unfriendly. At a formal occasion, casual language
may be considered disrespectful and out of place.

Although as a tertiary student most of your writing will be formal (academic), there
are situations when you will need informal language, especially after graduation.
Below are two cases of informal language usage that must be learnt in academic
writing:
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1. Colloquialisms

These are the everyday words and phrases of conversational language (familiar
language). For example, ‘Arsenal bit the dust’ is a colloquialism to mean ‘Arsenal
lost the match’. Although they are most common in casual conversation, they also
have a place in expressive and creative writing. So those who plan to get involved in
creative writing, e.g., writing short stories, colloquial language will always be part of
your written work.

‘I’m all revved up about this really cool job!’

Would the above colloquial sentence be appropriate in an application letter? Of

course not. You would instead write:
‘I am very excited about this great job!’

Colloquialisms can be used only in informal situations, and not in academic writing
or formal documents like application letters. After graduation, you will also need
colloquial language, especially in documents like emails and friendly letters to
familiar colleagues.

2. Slang

These are very informal words and expressions that are more common in spoken
language, especially used by a particular group, e.g., schoolchildren, criminals,
musicians, soldiers, etc. Consider: ‘I’m applying for this job because I’m a
hardworking chick.’ The word ‘chick’ is a slang word and can’t be used in a formal
application letter. You should instead use ‘lady’.

Slang consists of new words, or old words used in new ways, that are vivid and
colourful. Groups of closely associated people always devise slang words. For
example, musicians and students create slang, some of which is eventually used by
the public.
Examples in Luganda: okusiba ekiwaani, okuzoganya, deemu, okukolamu, okuvimba,
etc. Examples in Lunyankore and other local languages?
English examples:
Chill out – relax
Awesome – very good
Weirdo – strange person
Nuts – crazy

Note: Never use slang in a formal situation unless you are quoting somebody else’s
speech. Even after graduation, use it only in very informal and familiar documents
like friendly letters.
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Levels of Meaning

The effect a word has on an audience is part of the meaning of the word. A word
can have different meanings for different people and in different situations (levels of
meaning). Understanding the effects your words have will help you to make better
choices when you write – making better choices will make your style more effective.

Specific words

There are so many general nouns and verbs in English, e.g., the word house, is it a
brick house, an apartment, a hut, a mansion or a farmhouse?

General words tend to weaken your writing because they create only a vague
picture in your reader’s mind. Example: ‘I went to the store.’ Is it a grocery, a
hardware store, a video store or a boutique? Even ‘went’ is not specific – did the
speaker walk, run, dash or fly to the store? It’s also possible that he rode the bus or
drove his car. So it would be better to say: I walked to the grocer’s/ I drove to the
boutique, etc.

The more specific the writing is, the more realistic it will seem. The more realistic it
seems, the bigger the impact it will have on your readers. For example, in Julius
Caesar Shakespeare didn’t say that the ghosts were talking in the streets; he was
instead more specific by writing that the ghosts shrieked and squealed about the
streets.

Vivid words

These are specific words that appeal to the senses. When your readers can see,
hear, touch, taste and smell what you are describing, your message will come alive
and will be more effective. Compare:
- I smell breakfast cooking.
- Over my shoulders comes the sizzle and smell of frying eggs.

The first sentence doesn’t express a specific smell, but the sizzle and smell of frying
eggs in the second one creates a specific sensory image of sound and odour, and
hence more effective.

Non-sexist language

This is language that applies to humans in general, both male and female. In
reference to humanity, non-sexist expressions are more appropriate than gender-
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specific ones. For instance, instead of the gender-specific term mankind, you can
use humanity, humans, human beings or people.

In the past many skills and occupations excluded either men or women, and gender-
specific words were appropriate. These days they are falling out of use since many
jobs are now done by both sexes.

Following are some widely used non-sexist terms that you can use in your writing
instead of the older, gender-specific ones. Note that sexist language sounds unfair
to a certain gender (sex), especially to females; non-sexist language should
therefore be used to sound fair to both genders.

Gender-specific (sexist) Non-sexist

Businessman business executive

Chairman chairperson
Deliveryman delivery person
Fireman fire fighter
Foreman supervisor
Mailman mail carrier
Manmade synthetic/artificial
Sportsman sportsperson
Policeman police officer
Salesman salesperson
Steward, stewardess flight attendant
Watchman security guard

Connotations

Words have a denotation and connotations. Denotation is the strict dictionary

definition of a word. Connotations are the emotions and associations that a word
may suggest. Not all words have connotations. Words like table, cat, look, eat, bed,
etc. suggest no particular emotions or associations. But words like skinny, slender,
gape, glare, etc. do.

Words get their connotations through everyday usage and common experience. For
instance, a hut will suggest poverty and shabbiness while a mansion will imply
wealth and comfort. This therefore means that as you choose words, be aware of
their connotations. In brief, connotations help in setting the tone of your writing.

Loaded words
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These are words and phrases that have strong connotations, either positive or
negative. Since they appeal to emotions, loaded words can bias people for or
against something. For example, a car that is described as a roomy luxury sedan will
sound attractive to prospective buyers while an oversized, overpriced gas-guzzler
will discourage potential buyers.

Advertisers, politicians, salespeople and writers of newspaper editorials all use

loaded words to influence their audiences. Creative writers always use loaded words
to get readers emotionally involved with situations and characters. The same goes
for writers of informative articles and news reports.

Note: You should use loaded words with care. Intelligent readers treat them with
suspicion as they know that they are used as an attempt to manipulate their
emotions. You should remember that loaded words always make your readers
associate these feelings with your subject (topic). Avoid any words that might give
the wrong impression to your audience.

Jargon

This is specialized language that is used by members of a certain profession, hobby

or field of study, e.g., doctors, lawyers, swimmers, computer users, etc. Jargon is
useful if it is properly used. Use it only when you are sure that your audience will
understand it. Don’t use it if your readers are not part of that particular group or
field. For instance, if you are writing to the public about the spread and prevention
of HIV, write in general or plain terms and any jargon used should be clearly defined.

Avoid obstacles in your Style

Certain words and expressions can be obstacles to effective style. They weaken your
style by boring or confusing your readers. You can make your writing clear, coherent
and interesting by eliminating these obstacles. Below are some of them.

Misused or confused words

There are many words that sound so similar or so close in meaning that they are
easily confused. For your message to be clear, you must know the differences in
meaning between similar words. As you revise and proofread, use a dictionary to
check the spellings and meanings of words you are not sure of. Below are some
pairs of easily confused words. Do you know the difference?

Affect/effect, principal/principle, sit/seat, rise/raise,

borrow/lend, eminent/imminent, lose/loose, stationary/stationery
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Tired Words

These are words that have become vague and bland (ineffective) due to overuse.
For instance, the word great no longer has its original powerful meaning. Tired
words should be avoided because they weaken your writing. Instead of saying that a
meal is nice you could describe it as tasty or delicious; a nice journey is not as
effective as an exciting journey. Keep your reader’s attention by using vivid, specific
words.

Note: You can use your word-processing thesaurus to help you find vivid words or
synonyms to replace tired ones (a thesaurus is a book that lists words in groups that
have similar meanings).

Clichés

These are tired expressions that have used for a long time and no longer have their
powerful meanings. English has thousands of clichés. Examples: clear as crystal,
strong like a lion, a dog’s life, wise as an owl. Instead of clichés, you can create your
own vivid, unique expressions. For example, instead of: As tall as an electric pole,
you can say: As tall as a giraffe; a very miserable life instead of a dog’s life, etc.

Mixed Idioms and Metaphors

An idiom is an expression that can’t be taken literally, i.e., it has a hidden meaning.
Examples: beat about the bush, make ends meet, burn midnight oil, have bigger fish
to fry, etc.

A metaphor is an expression that describes something by comparing it with

something else. Examples: the foot of mountain, the arm of the chair, the roof of
the mouth.

When you use idioms and metaphors, ensure that you use them correctly and
consistently. You will confuse your readers if you mix them up, e.g. I had bigger
carrots to fry; the correct metaphor is ‘I had bigger fish to fry.’, which means ‘I had
more important/more interesting things to do.’

Gobbledegook

This is complicated language that is difficult to understand. It usually consists of

long, complicated words and long, complicated sentences. Although it might look
impressive, it always stands in the way of effective style. You should therefore use
simple, clear and direct language in your writing by avoiding long, complicated
words and long, complicated sentences.
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For instance, instead of ‘That will aggravate the situation.’, say ‘That will worsen the
situation.’, or ‘I don’t comprehend what you are saying.’, say ‘I don’t understand
what you are saying.’

Euphemisms

These are indirect, pleasant words used in place of direct, unpleasant or offensive
words. They are often used to show courtesy (politeness). For instance, during
dinner at a neighbour’s house, you can describe a strange dish as ‘interesting’ or
‘unusual’ instead of ‘odd’ or ‘weird’.

EUPHEMISM MORE DIRECT TERM

Additional revenues higher taxes

Deceased dead
Correctional institution/facility prison/jail
Offender criminal
Misrepresentation lie
Powder room/washroom toilet
Pass away die

Euphemisms eliminate negative connotations that might interfere with a writer’s

aim. If the government wants to persuade citizens to pay higher taxes, it might refer
to them as ‘revenue enhancement’. Note, however, that many euphemisms have
nothing to do with courtesy. They are instead used to mislead people by hiding
unpleasant truths or misrepresenting important facts.

On the other hand, they are appropriate if you want to show politeness. You should,
however, remember that their indirectness tends to weaken your writing. They
might also cause your readers to wonder if you are being honest with them. In such
situations it is better to use direct language whenever you can.
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UNIT 2

COHERENCE in Academic Writing

This refers to a situation in which all the pieces of a text fit together well. Coherence
makes a text meaningful and easy to understand. In other words, a coherent text is
the one in which the ideas are logical and well organized.

Opposite: incoherent/illogical/meaningless

Characteristics of a coherent text:

1. It must have unity, i.e., all the ideas must be related to the main idea (the text
should form a unit).
2. It should be properly paragraphed.
3. The ideas should be arranged in a meaningful order.
4. There must be connections between ideas.
5. It must be written in correct language and correct punctuation.
6. It should be proofread and edited.

ORDER OF IDEAS

The ideas in a coherent text are arranged in an order that makes sense. In a
coherent text the reader can easily know how the ideas are related to each other.
There are four basic ways of arranging ideas:

1. Chronological order – arrange events in the order they happen.

2. Spatial order – arrange details in the order that the eyes see them.
3. Order of importance – arrange ideas or details according to how important they
are.
4. Logical order – arrange ideas or details into related groups

Connections between ideas

Apart from a sensible order, the use of direct references and transitional
expressions also makes a text coherent.

Direct references

These are words that refer to a noun or pronoun used earlier.

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There are three ways to make direct references:

a) Use a noun or pronoun used earlier, i.e., avoid repetition of the same word so
many times, e.g., if the main character in a text is gigantic carpenter called Peter,
you can sometimes use ‘he’, ‘the carpenter’, ‘Peter’, ‘the giant’, and not ‘Peter’ all
the time.

b) Once in a while repeat a word used earlier, i.e., avoid too much use of a pronoun
that might cause confusion, e.g., instead of ‘he’ throughout, you can recall his name
or nickname.

c) Use synonyms to recall words or phrases used earlier, e.g., for HIV patients, you
can use victims, sufferers, people living with HIV, etc.

Transitional words and phrases

These show connections or transition between ideas. They include prepositions that
show chronological or spatial order and conjunctions that connect ideas and show
relationships.

Examples:

1. When you compare, classify and define ideas, use words like also, like, likewise,
moreover, similarly, too, etc.

2. When you contrast, use although, but, however, in spite of, despite, instead,
nevertheless, on the other hand, still, yet, etc.

3. To show cause and effect or to narrate, use accordingly, consequently, because,

since, so that, therefore, hence, etc.

4. To show time or to narrate ideas, use after, at last, lastly, before, eventually,
finally, later, meanwhile, next, then, until, when, while, etc.

5. To show place or to describe ideas, use above, across, before, around, beyond,
down, inside, into, over, under, etc.

6. To show importance or to evaluate ideas, use first, last, mainly, more important,
then, to begin with, etc.

Note: Even in an exam, write consciously. It’s better to write a short draft; review
and edit it at least once before submission.
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UNIT 3

A. WORDS THAT ARE OFTEN CONFUSED

Many words are often confused and this causes confusion and distortion of
messages. Most of these words sound similar but have different meanings.
Following below are examples of such words.

1. Formally – in a proper or dignified manner; according to strict rules

Example: Application letters should be formally written.

Formerly – previously; in the past

Example: Barack Obama was formerly the president of the USA.

The same applies to formal and former: a formal letter; a former president.

2. Loose (loos): This is an adjective which means free; not close together; not firmly
fastened
- The loose cattle escaped from the farm.
- It’s not easy to walk on loose sand.
- All loose screws should be tightened.

Lose (looz): This is a verb that means to suffer loss of something; to misplace
something; to lose somebody, i.e., when somebody dies.
Examples:
- I lost my wallet yesterday.
- I don’t want to lose my mother (I don’t want my mother to die).

3. Principal (noun) – the head of a school.

Example: Brother Mugabo is the principal of St Henry’s College.
Or adjective – main or most important.
Example: Smoking is the principal cause of lung cancer.

Principle – a certain value you believe in or a rule of conduct, a fact or general truth.
Examples:
- People with no principles are not trustworthy.
- Faithfulness is one of the biggest principles in marriage.

4. Quiet (adjective) – still or silent

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Example: Libraries are always quiet places.

Quite – completely or very

Examples:
- He quite ignored my advice (completely).
- This book is quite interesting (very).

5. Stationary (adjective) – in a fixed position; not moving or immobile.

Example: Their car hit a stationary bus.

Stationery (noun) – writing material.

Example: The new school needs a lot of stationery.

6. Advice (noun)
Example: Parents always give good advice to their children.

Advise (verb) – to give advice.

Example: The doctors advised him to quit smoking.
The same applies to practice (noun) and practise (verb).

7. Customer – of a shop or business (usually for a product)

Example: Kentucky has many customers

Client – of a lawyer or bank (usually for a service)

Example: Centenary Bank has many clients.
8. Farther – distance covered.
Example: The tourists went farther into the National Park.

Further: addition of something.

Example: I asked for further information.

Note: In modern English, further can mean both distance and addition, but not
farther.
Example: We travelled farther/further; but it would be wrong to say: I asked for
farther information.

8. Wounded – in battles/wars
Example: Many Russian soldiers have been wounded in Ukraine.

Injured/hurt – in an accident or fight.

Example: Five people were injured in last night’s accident.
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9. Borrow – to take, use and return later; take money from a person/bank and pay
later.
Examples:
- Can I borrow your book?
- I borrowed one million shilling from Centenary Bank.

Lend – to give something/money to someone to use and bring it back/pay later.

Examples:
- Lend me your umbrella.
- Centenary Bank lent me one million shilling.

Don’t say: Borrow me your umbrella; I’ll borrow you my umbrella.

Say: lend me your umbrella; I’ll lend you my umbrella.

10. Argue – to support an argument or give an opinion

Example: Women argue that men are not trustworthy.

Urge – to advise or persuade.

Example: MRU students are urged to do Writing Skills.

11. Raise – done by somebody else

Example: The president has raised the teachers’ salaries.
Rise – done by itself.
Example: The prices are rising these days.

12. Complement (noun) – something that makes whole or complete.

Example: A wife is a complement to a husband.

Complement (verb) – to add or improve.

Example: Good wine complements a good meal.

Compliment (noun) – praise; a courteous (polite) act or expression.

Example: Thanks for the compliment.

Compliment (verb) – to express praise or respect

Ex: The lecturer complimented me on my excellent essay.

13. Born – given birth to

Example: He was born in Kenya.

Borne – carried or endured.

Example: Many Africans have borne their money problems without complaint.
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14. Its – possessive form of it

Example: The country loves its patriotic president.

It’s – short form of it is or it has.

Examples:
- It’s my first time to see a lion.
- It’s been concluded that malaria is a big killer.

15. Later (adjective or adverb) – more late.

Examples:
- We’ll hold the meeting at a later time.
- Come see me later.

Latter – the second of two things mentioned (as opposed to former).

Examples:
- I chose the latter option.
- Peter and John are excellent musicians; the latter is even better.

16. Eminent – famous and respected, especially in a certain profession.

Example: An eminent doctor
Imminent – about to happen, especially something bad or unpleasant.
Examples:
- His resignation is imminent.
- The economy is in imminent danger of collapse.

17. Dairy – related to milk and its products, e.g., His father has a dairy farm; diary =
notebook, e.g., I wrote down the number in my diary.

18. Seat (noun) = a chair, e.g., I bought a new seat; sit (verb), e.g., Please sit down.
Note: to be seated, and not sitted.

19. Each other is used on two, e.g., Jane and Mary love each other; one another is
used on three or more, e.g., Jane, Mary and Rose love one another.

20. Adapt = to change, adjust or modify, e.g., Many cars have been adapted to new
technology; adopt = to raise a child as your own or accept a policy, method, etc. e.g.,
The wealthy family has adapted the fatherless little girl; The government has
adopted a new policy on education.

21. Affect is a verb, e.g., Malaria affects many people in Africa; effect is a noun, e.g.,
The effect of malaria in Africa is huge.
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22. Beside = next to or near, e.g., The school is beside the church; besides = apart
from, e.g., Besides playing football, he also plays volleyball.

23. Desert = a large, dry area, e.g., Sahara is one of the biggest deserts in the world;
dessert = sweet food eaten at the end of a meal, e.g., We had a dessert of
chocolate.

24. Effective is used on drugs or methods, e.g., Panadol is very effective against
headaches; efficient is used on people, e.g., Peter is an efficient employee.

25. Find = get back something lost or come across, e.g., Once you lose money, it’s
hard to find it (the past tense is found); found = to start or launch something (past
tense is founded), e.g., The government is going to found a new development fund;
The club was founded ten years ago.

26. Licence is a noun, e.g., My licence is new; license is a verb, e.g., The municipality
is going to license new shops.

27. Elder is used on family members, e.g., My elder brother is already working; older
is used on people who are not related, e.g., Peter is older than James.

28. Vacation = holiday, e.g., We went on vacation last December; vocation = work or
activity, e.g., Nursing is an important vocation.

29. Jealous is an adjective, e.g., Co-wives are always jealous of each other; jealousy
is a noun, e.g., Jealousy and cruelty are evil.

30. Coma = state of unconsciousness, e.g., the patient is in a coma (the adjective is
comatose, e.g., the patient is comatose); comma is a punctuation mark.

31. Affected = concerned indirectly, e.g., Aids affects so many people, i.e., they don’t
have it, but their relative or friend is sick; infected = they have the disease
themselves, e.g., Many prostitutes are infected with HIV.

32. Sale is a noun, e.g., This house is not for sale; sell is a verb, e.g., This shop sells
stationery.

B. GOOD SPELLING HABITS

1. Always consult a dictionary – look up any words you are unsure of. Keep revising
and memorizing them until you learn them by heart.
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2. Keep a spelling notebook – enter there those words that always give you trouble
and learn them by heart (You can use your phone as your spelling notebook).

3. Proofread for careless spelling mistakes – always reread your text to eliminate
errors like weather for whether, missing letters like goverment for government, and
words that sound similar like loose/lose.

Note: Poor spelling can create a bad impression in your reader’s eyes/mind. For
example, the reader may consider you careless, too lazy or too ignorant. This might
take away his focus and interest in the text. If possible, use of word-processing
software is highly recommended.

C. WRONGLY SPELT WORDS

There are many English words that are often wrongly spelt. Look at the list below;
the second word of the pair is the correct spelling.

Recieve/receive, decieve/deceive, concieve/conceive, urgue/argue, friend/friend,

intergrate/integrate, defferent/different, refference/reference,
acommodation/accommodation, arial/aerial, comercial/commercial,
curiculum/curriculum, enviroment/environment, goverment/government,
inoccent/innocent, instution/institution, irellevant/irrelevant, mentain/maintain,
maintainance/maintenance, neccessary/necessary, parlament/parliament,
percieve/perceive, privelege/privilege, reccommendation/recommendation,
reciept/receipt, releive/relieve, rythm/rhythm, sieze/seize, tommorrow/tomorrow,
wellcome/welcome, yeild/yield, adress/address, carefull/careful, skillfull/skilful,
fullfill/fulfil, installment/instalment, ninty/ninety, intrest/interest,
neigbour/neighbour, proffession/profession, pronounciation/pronunciation,
questionaire/questionnaire, unecessary/unnecessary, syllibus/syllabus,
writting/writing, commer/comma

Note: The above list is not complete; there are many other such words and the
student should make an effort to learn their spelling.
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UNIT4

ESSAY WRITING

An essay is a short text that always consists of several paragraphs. An essay question
is intended to measure your ability to express your understanding of selected
material (topic) in an organized, written form. Writing an essay for an exam needs
critical thinking and writing skills. A well-written essay must completely answer the
question, i.e., it must contain enough information that demonstrates thorough
knowledge of the topic.

Essay questions usually focus on specific tasks as expressed by a certain verb.

Following below are the verbs usually found in essay questions:

1. Analyse – take a topic apart and see how each part works.
2. Argue – take a viewpoint and give reasons to support it.
3. Compare – point out likeness.
4. Contrast – point out differences.
5. Demonstrate/illustrate/present/show – provide examples to support a point.
6. Describe – give a picture in words (give a detailed account of a topic).
7. Discuss – examine a topic in detail.
8. Explain – give reasons for something.
9. Identify – point out specific persons, places, things, or characteristics responsible
for something.
10. Interpret – give the meaning or significance of something.
11. List/outline/trace – give all steps in order or all details about a subject/topic.
13. Summarize – give a brief overview of the main points.

Useful tips:

1. Read the question carefully and ensure that you understand it.
2. Identify the task at hand and focus on it.
3. Avoid including irrelevant details or going off-topic.
4. Take a moment to use prewriting strategies, i.e., take some minutes drafting and
planning your essay, e.g., on a rough draft.
5. Evaluate and revise before submitting.

Note: In an exam, it’s not possible to go through the different writing strategies, but
you can brainstorm ideas, organize and plan and re-read, check and edit.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD ESSAY

1. It must be well-organized.
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2. The main ideas and supporting points are clearly presented (properly
paragraphed).
3. It should be in complete and well-written sentences.
4. It must be free of spelling, punctuation and language mistakes.

FORMAT:

A standard essay must have:

a) A title
b) An introduction
c) A body
d) A conclusion

WRITING AN INTRODUCTION

The importance of an introduction

The introduction serves basically two purposes:

a) To catch or attract your reader’s attention and to motivate them to read further.
b) To identify the topic and to give some insight about it.

Note: in short essays, the introductory paragraph shouldn’t be too long; it’s only in
long essays where it can be several paragraphs or even several pages.

A good introduction should:

1. Have a hook (striking or interesting statement) at the beginning to grab the

reader’s attention.
2. Provide background information about your topic.
3. Give your reader an idea about the main points and claims that you are going to
discuss.

Ways of introducing your topic:

a) Asking a stimulating question, e.g., on an HIV topic: Is there anybody who doesn’t
know that Aids is one of the biggest killers in the world?

b) Making a striking or shocking statement, e.g., on ‘Causes of accidents in Uganda’:

Thousands have been killed or injured on Ugandan roads due to reckless driving!

c) Giving a captivating statistic, e.g., on ‘Population growth in Africa’: At 9%, Africa

has the fastest population growth, and unless strict family planning is put in place,
70% of her population will soon be under twenty years of age!
 19

d) An attention-grabbing quote, e.g., by a prominent figure or scholar.

Note: Your first sentence should catch or attract your reader’s attention. This should
be followed by two or three more sentences that provide details about your topic or
your process or what you intend to achieve in your arguments.

Avoid the following mistakes in your hook or introductory paragraph:

a) Using clichés like ‘First and foremost…’

b) Giving dictionary definitions.
c) Writing generalizations, e.g. ‘We’re all dishonest’ for ‘Many/most of us are
dishonest.’
d) Making sweeping statements with words like everybody, everywhere, always,
etc.
e) Including too much background information that should appear in the body.
f) Using too many quotes.

THE BODY OF AN ESSAY

This is the main part of your essay. This is where the focus of your essay is, i.e., here
you give the detailed discussion of your arguments. Ensure that you pay particular
attention to the coherence of your sentences, logical development of your
paragraphs and correct punctuation.

WRITING A CONCLUSION

The importance of a conclusion:

It reminds the reader of the arguments in the essay by offering them a solution, a
question or insight into the topic.

Ways of writing a conclusion:

a) Writing a summary conclusion, i.e., summarizing the main ideas into a short
paragraph.

b) Giving your own view in a short paragraph, i.e., giving your own judgement or
assessment.

c) Linking your conclusion to the introduction, i.e., restating the importance of your
opening remarks.
 20

d) Suggesting a solution to a problem or giving the implications of your arguments.

Avoid the following mistakes:

1. Avoid introducing the topic, new ideas or evidence for the first time in the
conclusion.
2. Ensure that your tone is consistent with the rest of the topic.
3. Don’t begin your conclusion with phrases like ‘in closing’, ‘in summary’, ‘in
conclusion’ or ‘to conclude’. These phrases are redundant and unnecessary. It’s
obvious that your last paragraph is your conclusion.

Include the following in your conclusion:

a) End the essay on a positive note.

b) Show the importance of your ideas and the topic.
c) Provide your reader with a sense of closure.
d) Repeat and summarize your main points.
e) If possible, suggest a solution to the problem.

Note: Although it shouldn’t be too long, a conclusion should be a paragraph on its

own and not just one or two sentences.

UNIT 5

CAPITALIZATION, i.e., when to use capital letters in a text (standard use of capital
letters)

1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence:

a) After a colon
Example: The ministry issued the following statement: All salaries of Science
teachers will be increased.

b) After the word ‘resolved’ in a meeting

Example: Resolved: That the company gives back to the community.

c) After a direct quotation

Example: When Nelson Mandela was elected president, he declared: ‘All races are
equal.’

Note: Don’t capitalize when you give additional information in the middle of a
sentence.
 21

Example: There was famine in the country: starvation was the order of the day.

2. Capitalize proper nouns and Proper adjectives

- A common noun names any one of a group of persons, places or things, e.g.,
musicians, writers, etc.
- A proper noun names or identifies a particular person, place or thing, e.g.,
Africa, Peter, Uganda, etc.
- A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun, e.g., a Thai restaurant
(from the country Thailand).

Note: In proper nouns made up of two or more words, don’t capitalize:

a) Articles (a, an, the) e.g., Charles the Great.

b) Short prepositions (those with fewer than five letters, e.g. at, of, for, with etc.)
Example: Mount of Kilimanjaro.

c) Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet).

Example: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

But capitalize the following:

1. The names of persons, e.g., James, Peter, etc. Also capitalize the abbreviations Jr.
and Sr. after a name, e.g., John F Kennedy, Jr.; Robert Kiyingi, Sr. Also note that
abbreviations of other titles, e.g., Mr, Dr, Gen, Hon, etc. are also capitalized.

2. Geographical names, e.g., towns and cities, countries, continents, etc.

But when indicating direction, don’t capitalize words like eastern, western, etc.
Example: He lives in the western part of Uganda.

Note:

a) In addresses, abbreviations like St., Ave., Dr., etc. are capitalized.

b) The second number in a compound number is not capitalized, Twenty-second

Street.

c) A word like city, lake, park or street is capitalized only when it’s part of a proper
noun, e.g., Kampala City, but in the city.

3. Capitalize names of organizations, teams, business firms (companies), institutions,

buildings and government bodies. Examples: League of Women Voters
 22

(organisation), Crested Cranes (team), Katende and Sons (company), Muteesa 1

Royal University (institution), Mukwano Arcade (building), Ministry of Education
(government body).

Note: Words like hotel, theatre, church or school are not capitalized unless they are
part of a proper noun, e.g., Rwenzori Hotel, Kampala High School, but near the
hotel, next to the school.

4. Capitalize names of historical events and periods, special events, holidays and
other calendar items. Examples: French Revolution (historical event), the Obote Era
(period), African Cup of Nations (special event), Labour Day (holiday), Monday,
March (Calendar items).

5. Capitalize the names of nationalities, races, peoples and languages. Examples:

Asian, African, European, French, Ugandan, English, etc.

6. Capitalise the names of religions and their followers, holy days and celebrations,
holy writings and specific gods. Examples: Christians, Christmas, Ramadan, New
Testament, the Bible, the Koran, Allah, God, Jehovah, etc.

7. Capitalize the brand names of business products. Examples: Samsung

smartphone, Prestige margarine, Canon camera, etc. But don’t capitalize types of
products, e.g., margarine, camera, honey, etc.

8. Capitalize the names of ships, trains, aircraft, spacecraft, monuments, awards,

planets and any other particular things, places or events. Examples: Kalangala
Express (ship), Trans Africa (train), Uganda Airlines (aircraft), Statue of Liberty
(monument), Nobel Prize, Academy Award (awards), Mars (planet).

Note: sun, moon, and earth are always not capitalized. ‘Earth’ is capitalized only
when used with another heavenly body that’s capitalized, the distance between
Mars and Earth.

9. Capitalize names or titles of books, magazines, newspapers, songs, poems, plays,

movies, etc. Examples: Things Fall Apart (book), Desert Warrior (movie), The
Merchant of Venice (Play).

Note: ‘the’ is not capitalized unless it’s part of the title, e.g. I saw it in ‘The
Observer’, but write: I saw it in the ‘Daily Monitor’.

10. Capitalize a title when it comes before a person’s name, e.g., Justice Ogola,
President Ruto, General Muntu, etc.
 23

UNIT 6

SUMMARIZING

Intro: A summary or précis is a shortened (brief) version of a text containing only the
key information (the main ideas). Summarizing is an important skill in both academic
and business environments. It’s especially crucial for you as a student when you’re
doing your research paper since you’ll consult many sources but only bring out the
main points that you need.

The importance of summarizing

It helps you to record the basic meaning of a text. It also helps you to think critically
since it forces you to analyse and identify the key ideas by leaving out the less
significant ones.

How to summarize

1. Read the text carefully and identify the main ideas and supporting details.

2. Shorten (condense) the material, i.e., focus only on key ideas and delete
unnecessary details. In your own words write a sentence about each main idea.

3. Use your list of main ideas to write the summary in paragraph form. Add
transitional words where necessary to connect the ideas.

4. Revise your summary by ensuring clarity and that you have kept the main ideas.

Note:

a) Be brief.

b) Don’t paraphrase (rewrite by using different words or starting differently)

because a paraphrase is often the same length as the original.

c) Always omit details like examples, quotations, descriptions, information in

brackets, repetitions, figures of speech, most figures and statistics.
 24

d) Always use your own wording, i.e., don’t just copy direct phrases or sentences
from the original. But keep key terms from the subject area, e.g., terms like HIV,
Aids, COVID, etc. cannot be written in your own words.

e) Keep the author’s points and views; never add your own ideas or comments
(don’t give your own opinion on the topic even if you don’t agree with it).
REFERENCES:

1. Brau Sheridan et al., The Writer’s Craft

2. Kinneavy James L. and Warriner John E., Elements of Writing
3. Sebranek Patrick, Writer’s Inc.
4. Stith Joyce, The Basic Writing Book
5. Strong William and Lester Mark, Writer’s Choice

ADDITIONAL RESOURCE: REFERENCING

Referencing refers to citing another person’s work that you have used in your
writing. In other words, when you use somebody else’s words or ideas you must
state (tell) where you got them from. If you don’t, you are guilty of plagiarism, i.e.,
copying another person’s work and pretending that it’s yours.

The most common way of referencing is the Author-date system known as the
Harvard System. It’s especially used in social and physical sciences. In this system
you give the surname of the author or editor of the book or article you are referring
to and the year of publication in brackets after your quotation or statement.

Examples:

1. ‘S. Africa is for all races.’ (Mandela, 1994:14) or According to Mandela (1994:14),
S. Africa is for all races.

2. Luther (1964) argues that one day all races in America will be equal.

Note:

a) If there are two authors, give both in alphabetical order, e.g. (Clark and Rock,
2014)

b) If there are more than two authors, give the first author and add ‘et al.’, which
means ‘and others’, e.g., (Clark et al., 2014).
 25

c) We always use the present tense, e.g., Mandela says and not said, though he said
it in the past. This makes your quote sound current.

The bibliography system

This is often referred to as the References System. Here you give a list of all the
works that you have mentioned in your text. This list appears at the end of your
work. In this system you must give full reference.

Example: Clark, Robert (2010) Effects of Global Warming.

Here you give the following:

a) The surname of the author or editor, followed by the initials or first name.

b) The year of publication in brackets.

c) The title of the book in italics or underlined.

Note:

a) If there many references, give them in alphabetical order.

b) For a newspaper or magazine article, give the name of the writer, the article title,
the name of the paper/magazine (in italics), the date of publication and page.

Example:

Kiggundu, M. ‘Inflation in Uganda.’ The Observer, 22 May 2011, p.12.

c) For electronic references, give all the details as they appear on the site, i.e., the
site details, e.g., author, the title, volume/page, date and publishing organization.

APPENDICES

A. WORDS THAT ARE OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED OR WROGLY USED

 26

There are many English words that are often badly pronounced or misused. Such
pronunciations sound awkward or strange to native speakers. Below are some of
the most common ones in Uganda. The pronunciations I’ve given you are based on
our vernaculars, especially Luganda and other vernaculars in western and eastern
Uganda. As for northern vernaculars, I’m not sure, but please pronounce those
words as you see them, i.e., as they’re pronounced in those vernaculars. These
pronunciations are intended to help you pronounce better so that you don’t sound
weird or strange when speaking with native speakers of English.

1. The short forms did not, would not, could not, should not, is not and had not, i.e.,
didn’t, wouldn’t, couldn’t, shouldn’t, isn’t and hadn’t.

Many speakers in Uganda insert ‘e’ in all the above short forms and end up
mispronouncing them, e.g., dide’nt, woulden’t, coulden’t, shoulden’t’, isen’t and
haden’t. But that ‘e’ is not supposed to be there. So the proper pronunciation
should be like those in Luganda and most vernaculars in Uganda.
- Don’t pronounce: didenti; pronounce: didinti
- Don’t pronounce: wudenti; pronounce: wudunti
- Don’t pronounce: kudenti; pronounce: kudunti
- Don’t pronounce: shudenti; pronounce: shudunti
- Don’t pronounce: isenti; pronounce: izinti
- Don’t pronounce: hadenti: pronounce: hadinti

Although ‘haven’t’ (have not) and ‘aren’t’ (are not) have ‘e’, it’s not pronounced,
i.e., pronounce havunti, aranti. ‘Mustn’t’ (must not) is pronounced as masitinti and
not masitenti.

2. The word ‘integrate’ has no ‘r’, i.e., it’s not intergrate. So pronounce: integureti
and not intagureti. The same applies to integration, and not intergration, i.e.,
integureshoni and not intagureshoni.

3. The seventh letter of the English alphabet is ‘g’ and it’s pronounced as ji in Jinja
and not gi. Many Ugandans mispronounce certain words that start with ‘ge’.
- Don’t say gesikya for gesture; say: jesikya
- Don’t say geero for gel; say: jeero
In such words, ‘g’ is pronounced as ‘j’.

4. The word ‘compensate’ is pronounced kompeseeti and not kompaseeti. The same
applies to ‘compensation’ – it’s pronounced kompeseeshoni, and not
kompaseeshoni.
 27

5. For ‘moderate’, ‘operate’ and ‘cooperate’, pronounce: modureeti and not

modareeti; opureeti and not opareeti; koopureeti and not koopareeti. The same
applies to their nouns, i.e., modureeshoni, opureeshoni, koopureeshoni and not
modareeshoni, opareeshoni and koopareshoni. Also, modureeta for moderator and
not modareeta.

6. ‘Ginger’ is pronounced ‘jinja’ as in Jinja (town in eastern Uganda) and not ginga,
i.e., the ‘g’ is pronounced like ‘j’.

7. Health/healthy; wealth/wealthy

In the above words, the one without ‘y’ is a noun and the one with ‘y’ is an
adjective. Many Ugandan speakers always erroneously use the one with ‘y’. Don’t
say: The Healthy Ministry (this means a ministry that’s not sick, but a ministry can
never fall sick) or Ministry of Healthy; say: The Health Ministry or Ministry of Health.
Don’t say: He has a lot of wealthy or wealthy creation projects; say: He has a lot of
wealth/he is wealthy or wealth creation projects. Note: A person who is not sick is
healthy; a healthy discussion means a good or productive discussion, e.g., the two
sides had a healthy discussion.

8. Renew/Renewal

‘Renew’ is a verb and ‘renewal’ is a noun. Don’t say: I’m going to renewal my
passport; say: I’m going to renew my passport or I’m going for the renewal of my
passport. Note: It’s a terrible mistake to say: I’m going for the renewalling or
renewelling of my passport. Also avoid saying: My passport was
renewalled/renewelled; say: My passport was renewed.

9. Ovacado (Ovakedo)

This is sadly a very common spelling and pronunciation mistake among Ugandans
for this delicious fruit. The correct spelling is avocado; the correct pronunciation is
‘avokado’ and not ovakedo. Special note for Tourism and Catering students: Please,
serve your visitors from England with avocado (avokado) and not ovacado
(ovakedo).

10. Different, difference, reference

The verbs in the above words are differ (diffa) and refer (rifa), but when it comes to
nouns and adjectives, diffa changes to diffu and rifa, to rifu, i.e., pronounce
diffurensi and not diffarensi; pronounce rifurensi and not rifarensi.
 28

11. The word ‘especially’ always stands alone without ‘more’ or ‘most’, i.e., there’s
no need to say more especially or most especially. Also note that the word
‘expecially’ doesn’t exist in English.

Examples:
- Don’t say: HIV infections are declining, more especially in rural areas; say:
HIV infections are declining, especially in rural areas.
- Don’t say: Writing Skills is useful, most especially in writing formal
documents; say: Writing Skills is useful, especially in writing formal
documents.

12. When it comes to reviewing an exam, the verb is moderate (note the
pronunciation in 3 above) and not modulate; the action is moderation and not
modulation; the person is a moderator and not a modulator.

13. For verbs like admire, expire, transpire and compile, the noun is pronounced
differently: admire (adimaaya) – admiration (adimireshoni and not adimayareshoni);
transpire – transipaaya (transipireshoni and not transipaayareshoni); compile –
kompayili (kompileshoni and not kompayileshoni).

14. In the words ‘honour’, ‘honourable’ and ‘honorary’, ‘h’ is considered a soft
consonant, i.e. it’s not pronounced. So pronounce, oona and not hoona; oonarebo
and not hoonarebo; onorary and not hoonorare. Note: use ‘an’ and not ‘a’ before
such words, e.g., an honorary degree. But in words like hotel, hospital and hostel, ‘h’
is taken as consonant (hard ‘h’) and is hence pronounced, e.g., hooteli and not
ooteli. Here you use ‘a’ and not ‘an’, e.g., we had lunch in a hotel, not in an hotel. In
case of doubt of any word that starts with ‘h’, check it out in a dictionary.

15. The word ‘flour’ is pronounced like ‘flower’, i.e., fulawa, and not fula.

16. ‘Fraud’ is pronounced as furoodi and not furawudi; ‘fraudulent’ is furoodyulenti,

and not furawudyulenti.

17. ‘Trauma’ (severe shock or psychological pain) is pronounced turoma and not
turawuma.

18. Letter ‘r’: Many speakers, especially in Buganda and possibly in Busoga region,
don’t make a difference between ‘r’ and ‘l’; they pronounce ‘red’ as ‘led’. So always
try to show the difference by emphasizing ‘r’.

19. The words ‘glove’, ‘glass’ and ‘gland’: Many Ugandans tend to insert ‘e’ before ‘l’
in such words, i.e., they sound like gelove, gelass, geland and they pronounce them
 29

as gilavu, gilasi, gilandi. But that ‘e’ is not there. So pronounce them as gulavu,
gulasi, gulandi.

20. ‘Elite’ is not pronounced as elayiti, but as eliiti.

21. Can be able: Don’t use ‘can’ and ‘be able’ together because they mean the same
thing. Example: Don’t say: I’m studying hard so that I can be able to pass my exams.
Say: I’m studying hard so that I can pass my exams.

22. ‘Z’, the last letter of the English alphabet, is always pronounced as ‘zeedi’ in
British English and never as ‘zii’; ‘zii’ is only pronounced in American English. In
Uganda we always use the British pronunciation and I recommend that you use
‘zeedi’.

23. ‘Publically’ doesn’t exist in English. ‘Public’ is the adjective, e.g., a public hospital.
But the adverb is ‘publicly’, e.g., the president spoke publicly against corruption.

24. Subjects that end in ‘s’, e.g., Mathematics, Social Studies, Writing Skills, etc. are
always in singular. Don’t say: Writing Skills are a useful subject; Say: Writing Skills is
a useful subject.

25 Partner is pronounced as patina and not patana.

26. Also note the difference between British English (BrE) and American English
(AmE): Colour/color, labour/labor, honour/honor, neighbour/neighbor,
travelling/traveling, etc. In Uganda we normally use BrE, and that’s what I
recommend, i.e., use the one with ‘u’.

CONCLUSION

The above tips were about helping you to improve on your pronunciation since in
Writing Skills we focus on written communication. You should remember that
learning is a continuous or endless curve and that since English is not your native
(mother) language, you must keep learning and improving on it. Research shows
that students who are good at language (English) are always good in other subjects.
So if you want to perform well academically, ensure improvement in English.

It’s therefore important for you to regularly read English material, i.e., novels,
magazines, newspapers, journals, etc. This will constantly expose you to as many
language structures as possible and consequently make you a better writer. I also
highly recommend that you acquire and constantly use a good college dictionary,
 30

e.g., Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (a hard copy is much better than an
online one).

English is moreover the official language in Uganda, i.e., the language that is used at
work. So the better your English is, the easier and more successful your career will
be when you leave school.

B. DEFINING

When asked to define, you must give the meaning of a certain term. Sadly, many
college students always give poor definitions, e.g., Unemployment is when a person
is unemployed, or Abortion is when a woman aborts. Below are some of the ways to
give better definitions:
- ‘Unemployment’ means a situation in which a person who is willing to work
cannot find a job.
- ‘Unemployment’ refers to a situation in which…
- The term ‘unemployment’ is/means/refers to a situation in which…

Note that you can say ‘situation’, ‘process’, ‘condition’, ‘disease, etc.

Examples:
- ‘HIV’ means a condition in which…
- ‘Aids’ is a disease that…
- The term ‘abortion’ refers to a process that involves the deliberate
termination of a pregnancy. Remember that we don’t say: she aborted.
Instead, we say: she had an abortion.

Note: it’s advisable to enclose the term to be defined between inverted commas, as
in the above examples. You can also define a term as a technical term depending on
your field, e.g., a doctor can define HIV as a medical term in which…; an economist
can say: In economic terms, ‘unemployment’ means…, etc.
 31

EXAM TIPS

1. Revise adequately and in advance – avoid last minute revision as you will start
panicking and things will go wrong. Last minute revision can be helpful if you are
only highlighting a few areas, and not the entire course.

2. Get adequate sleep before the day of the exam. Avoid reading late into the night
as this will exhaust you both physically and mentally.

3. Before answering any question, ensure that you understand it thoroughly well.
Focus on the key task (key verb) in the wording of the question, e.g., have you been
asked to define, name, describe, discuss, illustrate, etc? Avoid giving unnecessary or
irrelevant details or going off-topic.

4. Proofread and edit you work before submission, especially when it comes to long
questions like letters, essays etc. This will help you to correct careless mistakes,
misspellings, wrong tenses, wrong punctuation, etc.

5. Attempt the entire question – don’t leave certain sections or even entire
questions unanswered unless you’re completely ‘blank’ about them.

6. For formal or academic documents like letters and essays, ensure that you use the
right format. For instance, an essay should have its title on top, an introduction, a
body and a conclusion. For a letter of application, include the two addresses,
salutation, subject line, the body and closing. Remember that the most formal way
to end a formal letter, i.e., letter of application, is Yours faithfully and not Yours
sincerely.

7. If you’re suggesting a solution, don’t write incomplete sentences or sentence

fragments, e.g., To create more jobs – write a complete sentence, e.g., The
government should create more jobs.

8. Don’t start a paragraph with things like UNEPMLOYMENT, this is a problem that
affects many people in Uganda, or UNEMPLOYMENT: This is a problem… or
UNEMPLOYMENT; this is a problem… etc. Write a complete sentence in your
introductory or topic sentence like: Unemployment affects many people in Uganda
and the government should give it special attention. Don’t write an entire paragraph
with run-on sentences separated by a comma.
 32

9. Ensure to revise everything covered in the semester. For essay questions, marks
are awarded for Content or ideas (C), Language (L) and Format (F). So pay particular
attention to the arrangement of your ideas (coherence), your language (spellings,
grammar and punctuation) and correct format.

In case of any query, clarification or assistance, you can WhatsApp me or even call
me. I wish you the best of luck in your exams.