Internet Technologies (BCA NEP) – Chapter

Summaries
Chapter 1: Interconnected Networks
• Internet Overview: A global network of interconnected computers using TCP/IP protocols. It
originated from ARPANET (1960s) and grew via protocols like TCP/IP (adopted 1980s) 1 2 . Key
features include packet switching and end-to-end addressing (IP).
• Network Types: Classified by scale – LAN (Local Area Network, e.g. office/building); MAN
(Metropolitan, city-wide); WAN (Wide Area, spanning countries/globes) 3 . LANs offer high speed in
small areas; WANs cover vast distances via leased lines or satellite. (E.g., the Internet itself is a giant
WAN 3 .)
• OSI vs TCP/IP Models: OSI is a theoretical 7-layer reference model (Physical, Data Link, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation, Application) 4 ; TCP/IP is the practical 4-layer suite (Link, Internet,
Transport, Application) used on the Internet 5 . In OSI each layer is strict and independent; TCP/IP
merges some (e.g. OSI’s Session/Presentation into its Application layer) 5 . TCP/IP is protocol-driven
(e.g. IP, TCP, HTTP), whereas OSI is a teaching tool. TCP/IP’s layered approach (especially IP and TCP)
is dominant in real networks 5 .
• Internet Addressing: Every device has an IP address (IPv4/IPv6) and domain names (DNS maps
names to IPs). URLs identify web resources. Routers forward packets based on IP; DNS servers
resolve names (e.g. www.example.com→93.184.216.34).
• Internet Organizations: Governance is distributed. ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers) oversees IP address allocation and domain names 6 . IANA (Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority) administers protocols’ identifiers. The IETF (Internet Engineering Task
Force) and W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) develop technical standards. ISOC (Internet Society)
handles long-term development 7 6 .
• Cyber Ethics: Principles of responsible use: protect privacy (confidentiality), ensure integrity of data,
avoid hacking or piracy, and follow netiquette (polite communication). Always respect copyright,
avoid malware, and use strong passwords. (E.g. securing personal data to uphold confidentiality.)

Chapter 2: Internet Applications

• Internet Services: Common services include Electronic Mail (email), File Transfer (FTP), Real-Time
Communication (VoIP, video chat), Remote Login (Telnet/SSH), Usenet, and World Wide Web
(WWW) 8 . Also streaming media, cloud storage, and social networking are key. Each service uses
specific protocols (e.g. email uses SMTP/POP/IMAP; FTP uses FTP protocol).
• Email (SMTP/POP/IMAP): SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send mail between servers
9 . When you hit “send”, SMTP on your client pushes the message to the outgoing mail server,

which looks up the recipient’s mail exchange record (via DNS) and forwards the message 9 10 .
SMTP is a push protocol: it sends mail onward but doesn’t store it. For retrieving mail, POP3 (Post
Office Protocol v3, port 110) downloads emails from server to client (usually deleting them from the
server) 11 . This allows offline access but lacks multi-device sync. In contrast, IMAP (Internet

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 Message Access Protocol, port 143) keeps all mail on the server and syncs actions (read, delete)
across devices 12 . IMAP is preferred for multi-device access (mail always on server), while POP3
suits single-device offline use 11 12 . E.g. Gmail uses IMAP so you see the same mailbox on phone/
PC.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP is a TCP/IP application for transferring files between client and
server 13 . It uses two TCP connections: a control connection (commands) and a data connection
(actual file transfer). FTP supports active vs passive modes (for NAT/firewalls) and can transfer in
ASCII or binary modes 13 . It requires user authentication (username/password) for private
transfers. Advantages include reliable file copy and directory listing; drawbacks include lack of
encryption (unless using FTPS/SFTP).
• Voice over IP (VoIP): VoIP transports voice (and video) calls over IP networks instead of traditional
phone lines 14 . Components include microphones/speakers, codecs (encode voice into packets),
signaling servers, and clients/servers 14 . VoIP methods (e.g. SIP protocol) enable features like multi-
way calls and voicemail-to-email. Benefits: much lower cost (esp. international calls), mobility (login
anywhere), integration with data services 14 15 . Drawbacks: voice quality depends on network, and
requires good bandwidth/low latency (jitter). (Example services: Skype, WhatsApp calls.)

Chapter 3: World Wide Web

• WWW Definition: The Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents and resources accessed
via the Internet 16 . Invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, it uses URLs (Uniform Resource Locators)
and HTTP to retrieve pages. Unlike the Internet (network infrastructure), the Web is the content layer
(websites, pages, browsers). Key components include HTML (page markup), CSS (presentation) 17 ,
JavaScript (client scripting) 18 , web browsers (Chrome, Firefox), and web servers (Apache, Nginx).
• WWW vs Internet: The Internet is the underlying network; the Web is a service on top of it. E.g.,
email also uses the Internet but is not part of the Web. The Web requires both Internet connectivity
and web-specific technologies (HTTP, HTML).
• How the Web Works: User enters a URL in a browser (e.g. https://www.example.com). The browser
queries DNS to get the IP of the web server 19 . It then sends an HTTP request to that server (on
port 80/443) for the page. The server processes the request and responds with an HTTP response:
status line, headers, and HTML/CSS/JS content 20 . The browser renders the page from that content.
(Example: loading sriaurobindocollege.ac.in – DNS resolves to IP, browser requests “GET /”, server
returns HTML/CSS, then the browser displays the page 21 22 .)
• Web Pages: A web page is an HTML document (plus images/video) displayed in a browser 23 . Pages
can be static (fixed content, change only if server updates) or dynamic (generated per request using
server scripts or templates). Static example: a basic personal homepage. Dynamic example: an e-
commerce product page that pulls data from a database. Static pages are simpler and faster, but
dynamic pages support user interaction and personalization.
• Web Servers: Software that hosts websites and responds to HTTP requests. Examples: Apache HTTP
Server, Nginx, Microsoft IIS 19 . A web server’s key functions are: storing files (HTML, media),
listening on port 80/443, processing requests (often via server-side scripts), and sending HTTP
responses 19 . It may also handle logging, security (TLS), and load balancing. Two-tier architecture:
client (browser) + server. (Advantages: centralized management and security.) Three-tier (app
servers, DB) extends this model for larger sites 24 .

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Chapter 4: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Protocol Basics: HTTP is the application-layer protocol for the Web, defining how clients (browsers)
and servers communicate 25 . It is stateless (each request is independent) and uses a request–
response model 25 . By default it runs on TCP port 80; HTTPS (secure HTTP) uses port 443. Clients
send methods (verbs) to indicate action: GET (retrieve resource), POST (send data to server), PUT/
DELETE (update/remove data) 26 . Requests include a URL and headers; responses include a status
code (e.g. 200 OK, 404 Not Found) and headers (e.g. Content-Type).
• HTTP Versions: Early HTTP/0.9 had only GET. HTTP/1.0 (1996) added headers and status codes 27 .
HTTP/1.1 (1997) introduced persistent connections (reuse TCP), chunked transfers, Host header 28 .
HTTP/2 (2015) moved to binary framing, multiplexing multiple streams over one connection, header
compression and server push 29 . HTTP/3 (2022) runs over QUIC/UDP for even lower latency and
includes mandatory encryption 30 . These improvements speed up and secure page loading (e.g.
HTTP/2 enables faster loading of many assets on modern sites).
• HTTP vs HTTPS: HTTPS is HTTP over TLS/SSL, encrypting all data between browser and server 31
32 . This provides confidentiality (encrypts passwords, form data), integrity (detects tampering), and

authentication (server certificates verify identity) 32 . All modern sites (banks, shops) use HTTPS for
security. The browser shows a padlock icon for HTTPS. (Example: accessing https://www.google.com
ensures encryption; port 443 is used instead of 80.)
• Cookies (State Management): Cookies are small data pieces the server sets in the client’s browser
to maintain state 33 . Since HTTP itself is stateless, cookies let sites remember sessions (login
cookies), preferences, and shopping carts. For example, after login the server sends a session ID
cookie; on later requests the browser returns that cookie so the server knows the user’s identity 33 .
Cookies persist beyond a single page load or even a browser session (unless session-only).
• HTTP Caching: To improve performance, browsers and proxies cache HTTP responses 34 . When a
resource (image, page) is cached, a client can reuse it without re-downloading, greatly reducing load
time and server traffic 34 . Cache headers (e.g. Cache-Control ) instruct how long to store items.
Advantages: faster page loads on repeat visits, less bandwidth usage 34 . Disadvantages: risk of stale
content (out-of-date pages shown) and complexity of invalidation 35 . E.g., a logo image served with
a long Expires may not update if changed on the server, until cache expires 35 .

Chapter 5: Evolution of the Web (Web 1.0–3.0)

• Web 1.0 (Static Web): The “first generation” Web (mid-90s) was largely read-only and static 36 . Web
1.0 pages were hand-coded HTML with content fixed by the webmaster. User interaction was
minimal (mainly browsing and email forms). Examples: early Geocities pages, directories like Yahoo!
(before personalization). The focus was publishing content from server to user.
• Web 2.0 (Social Web): Emerged in early 2000s as an interactive, participatory web 36 . Web 2.0 sites
rely on user-generated content, social networking and collaboration. Key features: dynamic web
applications, social media (Facebook, Twitter), blogs (Wikipedia, YouTube), and rich client-side
scripting. Investopedia notes “Web 2.0 describes the second stage of the Internet, which has more
user-generated content … compared to its first incarnation (Web 1.0, static sites)” 36 . Technologies
like AJAX enable pages to update dynamically without full reload. Advantages: more engagement,
crowd-sourced content. Disadvantages: privacy concerns, echo chambers.
• Web 3.0 (Semantic/Decentralized Web): The emerging “third generation” emphasizes machine-
readable data and decentralization 37 . Web 3.0 is characterized by the Semantic Web (linked data,
AI understanding content) and blockchain technologies. It focuses on trust and automation: for

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 example, using cryptocurrencies/ blockchain to decentralize transactions 37 . Web 3.0 applications
may leverage AI/ML for personalized search and content 37 . It aims to interconnect data (people-to-
data) rather than just connecting users. (Example trends: decentralized apps (dApps), knowledge
graphs, blockchain IDs.)
• Web Generations Comparison: In summary, Web1.0 = static “brochureware”; Web2.0 = interactive/
social (US-centric internet economy); Web3.0 = data-centric/decentralized. Many sites today blend
these: e.g. a news site (Web1.0 content + Web2.0 comments + emerging AI recommendations).
• Big Data on the Web: The evolution to Web 2.0/3.0 has generated enormous data (user profiles,
logs, multimedia). This “big data” requires new tools (Hadoop, NoSQL) to process (e.g. for
personalization or analytics). Understanding Web data scales and analytics (e.g. search logs,
recommendation systems) is an ongoing trend.

Chapter 6: Web Information Retrieval (Search Engines)

• Search Engine Architecture: Modern search engines crawl the Web, index content, and answer
queries via a structured architecture. Crawlers (spiders) traverse links to fetch pages; an indexer
parses and stores page content; the query processor matches user queries to the index; a ranking
module orders results. For example, when you search, the query goes through a ranking algorithm
that may use PageRank and term relevance.
• Google PageRank: A classic example of link-based ranking. PageRank assigns each page a numeric
weight based on incoming links 38 . In essence, a link from an important page counts more. As
Wikipedia explains, “PageRank works by counting the number and quality of links to a page to
determine… how important the website is” 38 . (Thus, pages like Wikipedia earn high rank due to
many quality backlinks.) While Google now uses many algorithms, PageRank was the foundational
idea of leveraging web graph structure.
• Precision and Recall: Information retrieval performance is measured by precision and recall 39 .
Precision = (relevant retrieved documents) / (all retrieved documents); Recall = (relevant retrieved) /
(all relevant documents) 39 . High precision means most returned results are relevant; high recall
means most of the relevant items were retrieved. (E.g. a medical search engine may favor recall to
avoid missing a relevant article, at the cost of some non-relevant hits.) These metrics help evaluate
search quality (exam questions often ask precision vs recall definitions 39 ).
• Search Metrics & Models: Common IR metrics include F1-score (harmonic mean of precision/recall),
NDCG (ranked relevance), etc. Retrieval models include Boolean, vector space, and probabilistic
models (like BM25). Search engines also consider click-data (user behavior) and context. Web
Information Retrieval includes specialized techniques (e.g. handling hyperlinks, anchor text) beyond
plain document search 40 .

Chapter 7: HTML & CSS (Web Development Basics)

• HTML (HyperText Markup Language): The standard markup language for creating web pages.
HTML uses tags (e.g. <html> , <head> , <body> , <h1> – <h6> for headings, <p> for
paragraphs) to structure content. Text, links ( <a href="..."> ), images ( <img> ), tables
( <table> ), and forms ( <form> , <input> ) are defined with tags. Lists are common: <ul>
(unordered), <ol> (ordered), with <li> items 41 . Example:
<ul><li>Item1</li><li>Item2</li></ul> . HTML5 added semantic tags ( <header> ,
<nav> , <article> , <footer> ). HTML by itself defines content, not style. Good practice:
organize content with proper tags and attributes (e.g. alt on images for accessibility).

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 • CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): Used to style and layout HTML elements 17 . CSS rules select HTML
elements (by tag, id, class) and apply properties (color, font, margins, etc). For instance:
p { color: blue; font-size: 14px; } . Styles can be inline (using style="..." in HTML
tag), internal ( <style> in head), or external (linking a .css file). External CSS is preferred for
maintainability. CSS controls visual layout (e.g. the box model: margin, border, padding) and layout
models (flexbox, grid). Example: setting .container { max-width: 800px; margin: auto; }
centers content. Responsiveness can be handled with media queries. CSS3 includes advanced
features like animations and transitions.
• Client vs Server-side: HTML/CSS/JS are client-side (executed in browser). They complement server-
side content generation: e.g. server may output HTML templates, and CSS styles them. (Server-side
topics in next chapter.)

Chapter 8: JavaScript & Client-side Frameworks

• JavaScript: A programming language that runs in the browser to create interactive web pages 18 . It
can manipulate the DOM (Document Object Model), handle events (clicks, form submission), validate
input, and make asynchronous requests (AJAX) without reloading the page. Common uses: image
sliders, form validation, updating content dynamically, making API calls. Example: when a user clicks
a “Like” button, JS can send the event to the server and update the like count on the page. JS also
powers client-side frameworks.
• Bootstrap Framework: A popular front-end toolkit (CSS/JS) for building responsive websites.
Bootstrap provides a grid system and ready-made styles for layout, typography, navigation, buttons,
forms, etc. By applying Bootstrap classes (e.g. <div class="row"> , <div class="col-
sm-4"> ), developers quickly create mobile-friendly grids and styled components. It saves time over
writing custom CSS. (Example: using <button class="btn btn-primary"> yields a styled
button.) Bootstrap also includes basic JS plugins (modal dialogs, carousels). Advantage: speeds up
design and ensures consistency; drawback: pages can look “Bootstrap-generic” if not customized.
• AngularJS (or Angular): A JavaScript-based framework for building single-page web applications
(SPA). It implements MVC/MVVM architecture: HTML views are bound to JavaScript models via data-
binding. Angular (by Google) allows dynamic updating of the view when data changes, without full
page reloads. Key features: two-way data binding, dependency injection, and directives (custom
HTML tags). For example, using <div ng-app ng-controller="Ctrl"> an Angular app can
dynamically repeat lists ( ng-repeat ) or bind inputs. It fosters organized, client-centric app
structure (vs. coding raw JS). (Note: newer Angular (versions 2+) differs from original AngularJS, but
concepts are similar.)

Chapter 9: Server-Side Technologies

• Server-Side Scripting: Code executed on the web server to generate dynamic content. Common
server-side languages include PHP, Python (Django), Ruby (Rails), Java (JSP/Servlets), and JavaScript
(Node.js). The server receives HTTP requests (from browsers), runs scripts (e.g. to query databases),
and returns HTML. Examples: a PHP page might use <?php ?> tags to insert database-driven
content; a Node.js server uses Express to handle routes and send responses. Server-side code can
access databases, enforce security (authentication), and perform business logic. (By contrast, client-
side JS cannot access server resources directly.)
• PHP (Personal Home Pages): A widely-used open-source scripting language for web development.
PHP code is embedded in HTML ( <?php ... ?> tags) or in template files. It has built-in support

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 for databases (MySQL), sessions, and numerous libraries. Many CMSs (WordPress, Joomla) are PHP-
based. Advantages: easy learning curve and hosting support. Disadvantages: historically mixed code
and markup (though frameworks like Laravel mitigate this).
• Node.js: A server-side JavaScript runtime. It allows writing the server logic in JS. Node’s event-driven,
non-blocking I/O model makes it efficient for real-time apps (chat, gaming) and handling many
concurrent connections. For example, a Node.js HTTP server (with Express) can serve pages or act as
a backend API. Using JavaScript on both client and server simplifies development. (E.g. MEAN stack =
MongoDB, Express, Angular, Node.)
• CGI and Others: Earlier web servers used CGI (Common Gateway Interface) to run scripts (Perl, etc).
Now PHP and app servers have mostly replaced CGI due to efficiency. Other server-side options
include ASP.NET (Microsoft), Python (Flask, Django), and Java EE. The choice often depends on
existing infrastructure and developer expertise.

Chapter 10: Web Application Frameworks & Architectures

• MVC Architecture: Many frameworks follow the Model–View–Controller pattern. Model = data/
business logic (often database records), View = user interface (HTML/CSS templates), Controller =
request handler coordinating Model and View. This separation improves maintainability: e.g. a
change in UI does not require altering database code. (Example: Rails controller receives a form
submission (controller), updates database (model), then renders a template (view)).
• Django (Python): A high-level web framework that encourages rapid development and clean design.
It follows an MTV pattern (Model–Template–View). Features include an ORM for database models, a
built-in admin interface, and template language. It emphasizes “batteries-included” (lots of out-of-
box components). Django is used by sites like Instagram. Advantage: speeds development, strong
security defaults (CSRF protection, XSS escaping). Disadvantage: can be heavyweight for simple
projects.
• Ruby on Rails: A Ruby-based framework following MVC. Rails emphasizes “Convention over
Configuration”: it has sensible defaults (e.g. naming conventions) so less setup is needed. It comes
with ActiveRecord ORM, generators, and gems (plugins). Rails was popular for rapid prototyping (e.g.
early Twitter, Basecamp). Advantage: developer productivity; disadvantage: magic conventions can be
opaque to beginners.
• Other Frameworks: Many exist: Flask (Python micro-framework), Laravel (PHP), ASP.NET MVC (C#).
They all aim to speed up web app development by providing structure, libraries, and best practices.
When choosing a framework, consider language ecosystem, performance, and community support.

Chapter 11: Web Databases

• Relational Databases (SQL): Traditional web backends use RDBMS (e.g. MySQL, PostgreSQL,
Oracle). Data is stored in tables with fixed schema; tables relate via keys (SQL = Structured Query
Language). SQL databases ensure ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability).
Advantages: strong consistency, complex queries (joins, aggregations), mature tooling.
Disadvantages: scaling horizontally can be difficult, schema rigidity. Example use-case: financial
transactions, user accounts (where consistency is critical).
• NoSQL Databases: Non-relational, designed for distributed data and big scaling. Types include
document stores (MongoDB, CouchDB), key-value stores (Redis), wide-column stores (Cassandra),
and graph databases (Neo4j). NoSQL typically offers schema-less storage, eventual consistency, and
easy horizontal scaling. Advantages: flexible schema (good for evolving data), high performance on

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 large data volumes, distributed replication. Disadvantages: less emphasis on transactions (though
many support ACID on a limited scope), and often more complex query language. Example: social
media feeds (many connections) often use NoSQL (graph or document), whereas an accounting
ledger uses SQL.
• Comparisons – SQL vs NoSQL: SQL databases excel at structured data and complex queries,
providing reliable joins and normalization. NoSQL handles unstructured or semi-structured web data
(like JSON documents, logs) and huge scale (big data workloads). One can combine both: e.g. use
SQL for core relational data and NoSQL for caching or analytics. (Exam Qs often ask this difference.)
• Web Database Concepts: Web apps typically connect to a database on the server. Queries are made
from server-side code (e.g. using PHP’s PDO or an ORM). Understanding indexes, normalization, and
query optimization is crucial for performance. Many modern web services also use cloud databases
(AWS DynamoDB, Google Cloud Datastore) following NoSQL paradigms.

Chapter 12: Research Trends – Contextual IR & Web Mining

• Contextual Information Retrieval: Modern search and recommendation systems use context (user
behavior, location, query history) to improve results. For example, search engines personalize results
based on past clicks or geolocation. Contextual IR tailors content to user intent. In e-commerce,
showing related products on a site uses context (view history, similar users).
• Web Mining: The application of data mining to web data 42 . It involves extracting patterns from
web content (text, images), structure (hyperlinks), and usage (server logs) to gain insights. Web
mining is interdisciplinary, combining machine learning, IR, and statistics 43 . It includes:
• Web Content Mining: Mining the actual content of web pages (text, images) for patterns (e.g. topic
extraction, sentiment analysis).
• Web Structure Mining: Analyzing the link structure (Web graph) – e.g. identifying communities or
authoritative pages (similar to PageRank concepts).
• Web Usage Mining: Analyzing user behavior from web logs (clickstreams) to improve sites (e.g.
recommendation systems, personalization).
GeeksforGeeks defines web mining as “discovering patterns, structures, and relationships in web
data” using data mining techniques 42 . Applications include personalized marketing,
recommendation engines, SEO optimization, and fraud detection 44 . For instance, analyzing
customer browsing to suggest products (Amazon’s “Customers who viewed this also viewed…”).
• Sentiment Analysis (Web Mining example): A form of web content mining where text (reviews,
tweets) is analyzed for positive/negative sentiment. This often uses NLP and classification metrics
like precision/recall. A confusion matrix (from machine learning) evaluates sentiment classifiers: it
shows true positives, false positives, etc., which are used to compute precision and recall. (Exam
questions may ask “What is a confusion matrix?” in this context.)
• Web Mining vs Data Mining: Web data can be unstructured and rapidly changing. Web mining
complements traditional data mining by handling this dynamic, interconnected data. (Distinctions:
web mining uses content and link data unique to the Web.)

Sources: Key concepts above are drawn from course materials and standard references 1 45 25 36 37

39 38 42 .

1 2 3 6 7 IT CHAPTER-1 INTERCONNECTED NETWORKS-1.pdf

file://file-FCWQ4Uq1nxM5Yay3G6rt5x

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8 13 14 15 IT CHAPTER-2 INTERNET APPLICATIONS.pdf

file://file-SKmjs8yUZCcPd83Dd2gZR8

9 10 11 12 IT CHAPTER-2 INTERNET APPLICATIONS-1.pdf

file://file-HfHhjTJQPZdBBGtiji2Wfd

16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 41 45 IT CHAPTER-3 WORLD WIDE WEB.pdf

file://file-796buWuLdDdLmjd3QNs3GP

20 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 IT CHAPTER-4 HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL(HTTP).pdf

file://file-7csRYTLmzLpcrzwnxWuEL1

33 Using HTTP cookies - HTTP | MDN

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36 37 What Is Web 2.0? Definition, Impact, and Examples

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38 PageRank - Wikipedia
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39 Precision and recall - Wikipedia

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40 bcu.ac.in
https://www.bcu.ac.in/documents/Syllabus-all/New%20UG%20NEP%202021-22/Science/3-4th-sem/
BCA%20III%20_%20IV%20Semester%20Syllabus-min.pdf

42 43 44 Web Mining - GeeksforGeeks

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