Plant Morphology

Chapter 1: Introduction to Plant Morphology

Definition:
Plant morphology is a branch of botany concerned with the study of the external form,
structure, and appearance of plants. It covers all visible plant parts including roots, stems,
leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds.
Importance of Plant Morphology:

It helps in the identification and classification of plants based on their external features.

Provides fundamental knowledge for plant taxonomy and systematics.

Aids in understanding the adaptive features of different plant organs in response to

environmental conditions.

Useful in agriculture, horticulture, and plant breeding.

Branches of Morphology:

1. Vegetative Morphology: Concerned with the study of non-reproductive parts such as

root, stem, and leaves.

2. Reproductive Morphology: Focuses on reproductive organs like flowers, fruits, and

seeds.

Chapter 2: Root System

Definition:

The root is the descending (usually underground) portion of the plant axis. It typically lacks
nodes, internodes, and chlorophyll and does not bear leaves or buds.

Functions of Roots:
Anchoring the plant in the soil.

Absorption of water and minerals from the soil.

Storage of food (in modified roots).

Conduction of water and nutrients to other parts of the plant.

Some roots are modified for additional functions like respiration, support, and
propagation.

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 Types of Root Systems:
1. Taproot System:

Develops from the radicle.

Consists of one main root (taproot) and smaller lateral roots.

Characteristic of dicotyledonous plants (e.g., mustard, pea).

2. Fibrous Root System:

Radicle is short-lived; roots arise from the base of the stem.

Composed of many slender roots of similar size.

Typical of monocotyledons (e.g., wheat, rice).

3. Adventitious Root System:

Roots arise from parts of the plant other than the radicle (stem or leaves).

Common in grasses and some dicots like guava and banyan.

Modifications of Roots:
A. For Storage:

Fusiform (e.g., radish): Spindle-shaped, swollen in the middle.

Conical (e.g., carrot): Tapering shape, broad at the top.

Napiform (e.g., turnip): Globular upper part with a narrow base.

B. For Support:

Prop Roots (e.g., banyan): Arise from branches and grow downward to support heavy
stems.

Stilt Roots (e.g., maize): Arise from lower nodes of the stem for support.

C. For Respiration:

Pneumatophores (e.g., mangroves): Erect, air-breathing roots that rise above

waterlogged soil.

D. For Climbing:

Climbing Roots (e.g., betel): Help the plant attach and climb surfaces.

E. For Absorption in Epiphytes:

Velamen Roots (e.g., orchids): Covered with a spongy tissue to absorb moisture from
the air.

Plant Morphology 2
 Chapter 3: Stem
Definition:

The stem is the ascending portion of the axis of a plant that bears branches, leaves,
flowers, and fruits. It conducts water and minerals from the roots and transports food from
the leaves.

Functions of the Stem:

Supports leaves, flowers, and fruits.

Conducts water, minerals, and food throughout the plant.

Stores food and water in some plants (e.g., potato, ginger).

Helps in vegetative propagation (e.g., sugarcane).

Types of Stems:
1. Aerial Stem:

Grows upright above the ground.

Seen in plants like sunflower, maize, and rose.

2. Sub-aerial Stem (partially underground):

Common in plants that spread horizontally.

Types include:

Runner: Grass – long internodes that run above soil.

Stolon: Strawberry – weak stem branches run horizontally.

Sucker: Mint – arises from underground base and grows upward.

Offset: Water hyacinth – short internodes and rosette leaves.

3. Underground Stem:

Modified for storage and perennation.

Types:

Rhizome: Ginger – horizontal underground stem with nodes.

Corm: Colocasia – vertical, solid stem with nodes.

Tuber: Potato – swollen stem storing starch.

Bulb: Onion – underground bud with fleshy leaves.

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 Modifications of Stem:
1. For Climbing:

Stem Tendrils (e.g., grapevine) – help weak stems climb.

2. For Protection:

Thorns (e.g., citrus, bougainvillea) – modified branches for defense.

3. For Photosynthesis:

Phylloclades (e.g., cactus) – flattened green stems performing photosynthesis.

4. For Food Storage:

Tuberous Stems (e.g., potato) – store nutrients.

Chapter 4: Leaf
Definition:

A leaf is a green, flattened lateral outgrowth of the stem or branch, arising from a node and
bearing a bud in its axil. It is the chief photosynthetic organ of the plant and plays an
essential role in gas exchange, transpiration, and sometimes storage.

External Parts of a Typical Leaf:

1. Leaf Base: The basal part of the leaf which connects it to the stem. It may swell to form
a pulvinus in some legumes and may bear stipules (small, leaf-like appendages).

2. Petiole: The stalk that holds the leaf blade and raises it to an optimal position for light
absorption. Some leaves are sessile, i.e., lacking a petiole.

3. Lamina (Leaf Blade): The flat, extended part of the leaf where photosynthesis and gas
exchange occur. It exhibits various shapes, margins, and apex forms depending on the
species.

Types of Leaves:
A. Based on the Number of Leaf Blades:

1. Simple Leaf: The lamina is a single, undivided unit. Incisions may occur but do not
touch the midrib. (e.g., Mango, Guava)

2. Compound Leaf: The lamina is divided into distinct leaflets, and the division may reach
the midrib or petiole.

Pinnately compound (e.g., Neem)

Palmately compound (e.g., Silk cotton)

Plant Morphology 4
 B. Based on Phyllotaxy (Arrangement on the Stem):

1. Alternate: A single leaf grows at each node in an alternating manner (e.g., China rose).

2. Opposite: A pair of leaves grows opposite each other at each node (e.g., Guava).

3. Whorled: More than two leaves arise from a single node in a ring (e.g., Alstonia).

Leaf Venation:
Venation is the arrangement of veins and veinlets in the leaf blade.

1. Reticulate Venation: Veinlets form a complex network. Typical of dicotyledons.

Unicostate (pinnate): One main vein (e.g., Mango)

Multicostate (palmate): Many principal veins (e.g., Castor)

2. Parallel Venation: Veins run parallel to each other. Common in monocots (e.g., Grass,
Banana).

Modifications of Leaves:
1. Tendrils: Modified leaves that coil around supports and help in climbing (e.g., Pea).

2. Spines: Modified leaves that provide protection (e.g., Cactus).

3. Insectivorous Leaves: Trap and digest insects to supplement nitrogen (e.g., Pitcher
plant, Venus flytrap).

4. Phyllode: Petiole becomes flattened and performs the function of a leaf (e.g., Australian
Acacia).

5. Storage Leaves: Store food and water (e.g., Onion, Aloe vera).

Functions of Leaves:
Photosynthesis (synthesis of food using sunlight)

Transpiration (water loss through stomata)

Gaseous exchange (CO₂ intake, O₂ release)

Storage of food and water

Vegetative propagation (e.g., Bryophyllum)

Chapter 5: Inflorescence
Definition:

Plant Morphology 5
 Inflorescence refers to the arrangement of flowers on the flowering axis (peduncle). It
determines how flowers are borne and can vary greatly among species.

Classification of Inflorescence:
A. Racemose (Indeterminate Type):

The main axis continues to grow.

Flowers develop in acropetal succession (older flowers at the base, younger at the
top).

Types of Racemose Inflorescence:

1. Raceme: Pedicellate flowers on an elongated axis (e.g., Radish)

2. Spike: Sessile flowers on an elongated axis (e.g., Achyranthes)

3. Panicle: Branched raceme (e.g., Gulmohar)

4. Umbel: Pedicels arise from a common point (e.g., Coriander)

5. Head (Capitulum): Sessile flowers on a flattened receptacle (e.g., Sunflower)

B. Cymose (Determinate Type):

The main axis ends in a flower.

Flowers develop in basipetal succession (younger flowers at the base).

Types of Cymose Inflorescence:

1. Uniparous (Monochasial) Cyme: One lateral branch (e.g., Solanum)

2. Biparous (Dichasial) Cyme: Two lateral branches (e.g., Jasmine)

3. Multiparous (Polychasial) Cyme: More than two lateral branches (e.g., Hamelia)

C. Special Types of Inflorescence:

1. Cyathium: Cup-shaped involucre enclosing male and female flowers (e.g., Euphorbia)

2. Verticillaster: Clustered cymes appearing as whorls (e.g., Ocimum)

3. Hypanthodium: Flask-like structure with enclosed flowers (e.g., Ficus)

Importance of Inflorescence:
Aids in pollination by optimizing flower arrangement.

Helps in taxonomic classification and plant identification.

Influences fruit and seed development.

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 Chapter 6: Flower
Definition:
A flower is the reproductive structure of angiosperms (flowering plants). It is a modified
shoot bearing reproductive organs. Flowers may be unisexual (bearing either stamens or
carpels) or bisexual (bearing both).

Parts of a Typical Flower:

1. Pedicel: Stalk of the flower.

2. Receptacle (Thalamus): Tip of the pedicel where floral whorls are attached.

Four Floral Whorls (from outside to inside):

1. Calyx (Sepals):

Green, leaf-like, protective.

May be free (polysepalous) or united (gamosepalous).

2. Corolla (Petals):

Brightly colored, attract pollinators.

May be free (polypetalous) or united (gamopetalous).

3. Androecium (Stamens):

Male reproductive part.

Each stamen = filament + anther (produces pollen).

4. Gynoecium (Carpels):

Female reproductive part.

Each carpel = ovary + style + stigma.

Ovary contains ovules.

Floral Symmetry:
1. Actinomorphic (Radial): Symmetrical in multiple planes (e.g., Hibiscus).

2. Zygomorphic (Bilateral): Symmetrical in one plane (e.g., Pea).

3. Asymmetrical: No symmetry (e.g., Canna).

Position of Floral Parts (Insertion Types):

1. Hypogynous: Ovary superior (e.g., Mustard).

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 2. Perigynous: Ovary half-inferior (e.g., Rose).

3. Epigynous: Ovary inferior (e.g., Guava).

Types of Flowers:
Complete: All four whorls present.

Incomplete: One or more whorls absent.

Bisexual (Hermaphrodite): Both androecium and gynoecium present.

Unisexual: Only one reproductive whorl present.

Functions:

Reproduction.

Pollination and fertilization.

Formation of fruits and seeds.

Chapter 7: Fruit

Definition:
A fruit is a mature ovary developed after fertilization. In some cases, fruits can form without
fertilization, called parthenocarpic fruits (e.g., banana).

Parts of a Fruit:
Pericarp: Wall of the ovary, may differentiate into:

Epicarp (outer)

Mesocarp (middle)

Endocarp (inner)

Seed: Developed ovule.

Classification of Fruits:
A. True Fruits: Develop only from the ovary (e.g., Mango).
B. False Fruits: Develop from parts other than ovary (e.g., Apple from thalamus).
C. Based on Number of Ovaries and Flowers:

1. Simple Fruit: From a single ovary (e.g., Tomato).

2. Aggregate Fruit: From multiple ovaries of a single flower (e.g., Strawberry).

3. Multiple (Composite) Fruit: From multiple flowers (e.g., Pineapple).

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 D. Based on Pericarp Texture:

1. Dry Fruits:

Dehiscent: Split open at maturity (e.g., Pea).

Indehiscent: Do not split (e.g., Groundnut).

2. Fleshy Fruits:

Drupe (e.g., Mango), Berry (e.g., Tomato), Pome (e.g., Apple)

Function:

Protects developing seeds.

Aids in seed dispersal.

Serves as food source.

Chapter 8: Seed
Definition:
A seed is a mature, fertilized ovule that contains an embryo, stored food, and a protective
seed coat. It is the final product of sexual reproduction in flowering plants and plays a vital
role in propagation and species survival.

Structure of a Typical Seed:

Seeds can be broadly classified into two types based on the number of cotyledons:
A. Dicotyledonous Seed (e.g., Gram, Pea):

1. Seed Coat:

Outer covering consisting of:

Testa (outer coat)

Tegmen (inner coat)

Protects the seed from physical damage and pathogens.

2. Hilum: Scar on the seed coat marking the point of attachment to the ovary wall.

3. Micropyle: A small pore near the hilum that allows entry of water and oxygen.

4. Cotyledons: Two fleshy seed leaves rich in stored food.

5. Embryo:

Radicle: Gives rise to the root.

Plumule: Gives rise to the shoot.

Plant Morphology 9
 Hypocotyl and Epicotyl: Transitional regions between root and shoot.

B. Monocotyledonous Seed (e.g., Maize):

1. Seed Coat and Fruit Wall (Pericarp): Usually fused.

2. Endosperm: Major food storage tissue.

3. Aleurone Layer: Outer layer of endosperm, rich in protein.

4. Embryo:

Single Cotyledon (Scutellum): Absorbs nutrients from endosperm.

Radicle and Plumule protected by coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively.

Types of Seeds:
1. Albuminous (Endospermic): Endosperm present (e.g., Maize, Castor).

2. Exalbuminous (Non-endospermic): Endosperm used up (e.g., Pea, Gram).

Seed Germination:
The process by which a seed develops into a new plant under favorable conditions
(moisture, temperature, oxygen).
Types:

1. Epigeal Germination: Cotyledons come above the soil (e.g., Bean).

2. Hypogeal Germination: Cotyledons remain below the soil (e.g., Maize).

Importance of Seeds:
Store genetic material and ensure continuity of species.

Basis of agriculture and food production.

Aid in dispersal and colonization.

Used in artificial propagation and plant breeding.

Let me know if you'd like me to proceed with Chapter 9: Germination and Seedling
Growth, Mohsin!

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