Photosynthesis

- Plants/algae trap energy transferred by light from the sun.

- Energy is transferred to glucose.
- Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll that traps energy
transferred by light.
- Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction (products have more energy than the
reactants)

Biomass: The materials in an organism

Plants and algae are the producers in food chains.

- Glucose molecules are linked to form starch (polymer)

- When photosynthesis stops, the starch is broken down into sucrose.
- Sucrose is then converted to:
- Starch in storage organs
- Into other molecules
- Glucose for respiration

Leaf adaptations
- Often broad and flat, giving them a large surface area.
- Palisade cells are packed with chloroplasts and at the top of the leaf
- *Leaf can absorb more light
- Stomata allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf.
- Stomata are opened and closed by guard cells.
- In light, water flows into the guard cells making them rigid which opens the
stoma
- At night, waters flows out of the guard cells, making the stoma shut
- Leaves are thin so carbon dioxide does not have to diffuse far before reaching the
cells.
- Stomata allows the oxygen and water vapour produced to escape. (Gas exchange)

Factors affecting photosynthesis

- Reduced concentration of air molecules (such as on mountains) causes a lower rate of
photosynthesis.
- Warmer temperatures cause a higher rate of photosynthesis as enzymes work better at
those temperatures as opposed to cold temperatures.

Limiting factor: A factor that prevents a rate from increasing.

- Carbon dioxide concentration
- Temperature
- Light intensity
- *Changing the supply of the limiting factor changes the rate of photosynthesis
- Relationships are directly proportional when in a straight line.

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Inverse square law
- To calculate the new light intensity
- The new light intensity is inversely proportional to square of distance
- *If you double the distance from a light source, the light intensity becomes ¼ times
the original.

Buttress root adaptations

- Stop trees falling over in thin rainforest soils
- Trap leaves and vegetation which rot to provide additional minerals for the tree.

Water absorbed by plant roots (uses):

- Carrying dissolved mineral ions
- Keeping cells rigid (they wilt otherwise)
- Cooling the leaves
- Photosynthesis

Root hair cells

- Large surface area so mineral ions can be absorbed quickly.
- Thin cell walls so flow of water is not slowed down.

Diffusion and osmosis (in plants) - through the cortex cells

- Apoplast: (through cell walls)
- Cell walls have an open structure allowing for diffusion toward the middle of
the root.
- Via the cellulose matrix of the cell walls
- Symplast: (through cytoplasm)
- Cell membranes are semi-permeable allowing for water to pass into the
cytoplasm by osmosis.
- Via pores in the cell walls called plasmodesmata.

Active transport (in plants)

- Concentration of mineral ions inside the root hair cell is greater than the soil.
- Proteins in the cell membrane pump the ions into the cell.

Transpiration
- Flow of water into a root, up the stem and out of the leaves.
- Xylem vessels are continuous pipes connecting the plant's roots to the leaves.
- There is an unbroken chain of water due to the cohesion/weak forces of attraction
between water molecules.
- Water is pulled up the xylem vessels as it evaporates from the leaves
- *Concentration of water inside the leaf is higher than outside resulting in water
vapour diffusing out of the leaf.

Factors affecting transpiration

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 - Wind - moves water molecules away from stomata
- Low humidity - little water vapour in the air
- Higher temperature - particles move and diffuse faster
- Greater light intensity - makes the stomata wider

Xylem
- Thick side walls and rings of lignin form rigid tubes that can withstand water pressure
and provide support
- The dead cells have no cytoplasm and form an empty tube for water to flow.
- Tiny pores allow water and mineral ions to enter and leave the xylem vessels
- Lack of cell walls between the cells means that water flow isn’t slowed down.

Phloem
- Plants convert sucrose from glucose.
- Sucrose is translocated in sieve tubes of the phloem tissue.
- Companion cells pump sucrose into/out sieve tubes
- The increased pressure causes the sucrose solution to flow up to growing
shoots or to storage organs.
- Adaptation of sieve cells:
- Holes in the ends of the cell walls allow liquids to flow from one sieve cell to
another.
- Small amount of cytoplasm means there is more room for the central channel.
- Pores through which sucrose solution can be pumped.

Plant adaptations
- Leaves have large surface areas to collect light.
- Chloroplasts:
- Chloroplasts can move towards or away from light
- Contain chlorophyll that absorbs light.
- Open stomata allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf.
- Leaves are thin, the carbon dioxide doesn’t have to diffuse far.
- The spongy cells create air spaces allowing gases to diffuse easily.
- Xylem vessels supply water for photosynthesis
- Epidermis:
- Cells hold the leaf together and protect the cells inside.
- Transparent, allowing light to pass through them easily.
- Waxy cuticle:
- Prevents water loss
- Prevent microorganisms and water entering the leaf

Adaptations for extremes

- Deciduous plants lose their leaves preventing water loss during winter.
- Conifers have needle-shaped leaves
- Have a small surface area and thick cuticle

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 - Creates less wind resistance, collects less snow
- Stomata in sunken pits are less exposed to air movement resulting in less water loss.
- Tiny hairs trap water vapour
- Stomata only open at night, carbon dioxide is taken in at night and stored for the day.
- Thick cuticles reduce water loss.

Stimulus: A change in the environment that causes a response by an organism.

- Plants respond to stimuli through plant hormones
Tropism: Responding to a stimulus by growing towards/away from it.
- Positive tropism: Tropism towards a stimulus
- Negative tropism: Tropism away from a stimulus

Phototropism
- Tropism caused by light.
- Plants shoots are positively phototropic.
- Plant roots are negatively phototropic.
- *Caused by Auxins
- Auxins are produced in the tips of the shoot causing elongation of cells.
- Auxins move to the shaded parts of the root
- The Auxins cause these cells to elongate causing the plant to grow in the
direction of light.

Gravitropism
- Auxins in the root tips have the opposite effect than in the shoots.
- Auxins stop cells elongating causing positive gravitropism.
- The Auxins caused the root to grow in the direction of gravity.

Plant hormones
- Auxins:
- Selective weed killers contain artificial auxins to kill plants with broad leaves.
Kills weeds without killing the crop.
- Rooting powders cause plant cuttings to develop roots quickly.
- Produces a large number of identical plants.
- Gibberellins:
- Gibberellin makes plants germinate without the period of darkness.
- Flower growers can override photoperiodism using gibberellins.
- Gibberellins can produce seedless fruits/produce bigger fruits
- Ethene:
- Can be used to ripen fruits so that they are sold in the ‘just-ripened’ condition.
- Unripe fruits are easier to transport without damaging them.
- Unripe fruits can be kept for a longer time in cold storage.

Written by Tanuja Kumarasiri