LECTURE NOTES IN EARTH SCIENCE and moons.

Chapter I: Origin and Structure of Earth

I. Origin of the Universe C. Nebular Hypothesis and Condensation Theory

A. Big Bang Theory  Proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon
 13.7 billion years ago Laplace.
 The most accepted theory about the origin of the  According to them, the solar system formed
universe. from a nebula which collapsed. However, the
 Started from a hot, dense state that underwent solar nebula would not be able to form rings nor
inflation – a short but rapid expansion. the planets.
 1927; Georges Lemaitre, Belgian cosmologist  Solar Nebula Theory was developed which
and Catholic priest, deduced that the universe combines the idea of the flattening solar nebula
might be expanding. Supporting his theory with with interstellar dust.
the discovery of Edwin Hubble1, he hypothesized i. The cloud of gas and dust begins to
that there was once a primordial atom that collapse because of gravitational forces.
contained everything in the universe. ii. The spinning nebula flattens with a bulge at
 George Gamow - big bang produced helium and the center.
other heavier elements. He also predicted the iii. Central mass forms the sun.
cosmic microwave background radiation, the iv. Collision between particles forms the
remnants of the big bang that cooled after planets.
billions of years. III. Earth as the Only Habitable Planet
To be considered habitable, (1) a star should
 Arno Penzias & Robert Wilson – proved the
survive long for its planets to develop life, and (2) it
existence of the cosmic microwave background
should exist in a region where water remains liquid.
radiation.
1  Earth is located in the Goldilocks zone – the
Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving away
from each other at high speeds.
distance from the sun is enough to make the
The big bang is characterized by consecutive major temperature neither too hot or too cold.
events:  Miller-Urey Experiment – used to replicate the
i. 10-38 seconds after big bang, a strong force conditions of the early Earth; showed that life
became distinct and inflation occurred. started in the oceans.
ii. 10-10 seconds, elementary particles were forming IV. Solar System Explorations
and electromagnetic and weak forces became  1957 – the first satellite to orbit Earth was
distinct. launched
 10-38 to 10-10 – electroweak era  March 18, 2011 – first spacecraft to orbit
iii. -10
10 to 0.001 seconds – particle era: matter and Mercury
antimatter were present and antimatter  July 16, 2011 – first spacecraft to orbit an
annihilates matter. asteroid
iv. 0.001 sec. to 3 min. – era of nucleosynthesis:  August 6, 2012 – Curiosity Rover lands on Mars
protons, neutrons, electrons dominated;  August 25, 2012 – first humanmade spacecraft
antimatter became rare. in interstellar space
v. 3 min. to 500,000 years – era of the nuclei:  August 6, 2014 – first spacecraft to orbit a
normal matter is 75% hydrogen, 25% helium comet
vi. 500, 000 yrs. to 1 billion – era of atoms: atoms The Resolution B5 released by the International
are formed, photons are released forming the Astronomical Union (IAU) defined the following terms:
microwave background  Planet – a celestial body that orbits around the
vii. 1 billion yrs. after Big Bang – era of the galaxies: Sun, has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to
galaxies were formed assume a nearly round shape, and has cleared
the neighborhood around its orbit.
B. Steady State Theory  Dwarf Planet – orbits around the sun, has
 Proposed by Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, and sufficient mass, has NOT cleared the
Tommy Gold in the 1940s. neighborhood around its orbit, and not a satellite.
 Assumes that the universe has always been the  Small Solar System – all other objects except
same, uniform in space, and has unchanging satellites orbiting around the sun (asteroids,
time. most trans-Neptunian Objects, comets, and
 Disproved because evidences suggest that the other celestial bodies).
universe is changing. V. Earth Spheres
C. Oscillating Universe theory and Eternal Inflation The earth can be divided into four spheres:
Theory hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
 Implies that the universe may end someday. 1. Hydrosphere
 Believes that the current universe is located  The water portion of the Earth.
between the big bang and big crunch.  Makes up 71% of the Earth’s surface, most
 Universe is just one of the universes created by a (97%) of which is saltwater found in the
cycle of big bang and big crunch oceans.
II. Origin of the Solar System  Includes freshwater (3%) found in glaciers,
A. Encounter Hypothesis – the sun encountered a rivers, streams, lakes, and underground.
rogue star which removed gases from both stars.  Groundwater is the largest water reservoir
The hot gas then accumulated and formed the of fresh water available to humans.
planets, the less dense rogue star formed outer 2. Atmosphere
planets, and sun formed the inner planets.  The thin life-giving gaseous envelope of the
Earth.
B. Protoplanet Hypothesis – a cloud of gas and dust  Divided into two: the major components and
rotated slowly. By the explosion of a passing star, variable components.
cloud and gas began to collapse. A hydrogen fusion  The major components include nitrogen
formed the sun while huge whirlpool or eddies (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace gases (1%).
formed the protoplanets which became the planets They provide the air that people breathe and
 keeps the earth warm.
 The variable components are water vapor
and aerosols for the weather and climate.
 It is divided into layers: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and
thermosphere.
a) Troposphere – 11 m thick. Temperature
decreases with altitude. All weather
phenomena occur in this layer.
b) Stratosphere – 11 km-48 km from the Earth’s
surface. Temperature increases with altitude
due to the presence of the ozone layer.
c) Mesosphere – temperature decreases with
altitude and reaches -90℃.

d) Thermosphere – about 55 km with no

definitive upper-limit. It has the least number
of atmospheric molecules but most of the
high-energy radiation. Temperature increases
as altitude decreases.
3. Geosphere
 It has a depth of 6, 400 km.
 Divided into different layers: crust, mantle,
outer core, and inner core.
a. Crust (1%) – outermost layer, thin. It has two
layers: continental and oceanic.
b. Mantle (82%) –The mantle is divided into the
upper and lower mantle. About 100 km thick
of the upper mantle is made of solid rocks,
known as the lithosphere. Below this solid
portion is a 700 km thick, semi-solid or
plastic asthenosphere. Below the
asthenosphere is the lower mantle
containing hot semi-solid rock (2,100 km
thick).
 the boundary between the crust and
mantle is called the Mohorovicic
Discontinuity.
c. Core – made of iron-nickel alloy. The
boundary between the solid mantle and liquid
core is the Gutenberg Discontinuity. The
inner and outer core is separated by the
Bullen Discontinuity. The outer core is 2,260
km thick. The inner core has a radius of 1,216
km.
4. Biosphere – biological component of the earth.
Under this is the anthroposphere or the “human
sphere” which includes the part of the Earth
modified by humans
 LECTURE NOTES IN EARTH SCIENCE
Chapter 2: Earth Processes

I. Rock-Forming Minerals
A mineral is:
 Naturally-occurring
 Inorganic
 Solid
 Has a crystalline structure; and
 Can be represented by a chemical formula
Minerals can be characterized using the following:
A. Optical Properties
1. Luster – the quality of light that is being reflected by the surface of a mineral.
TYPES OF LUSTER

Metallic – looks like metals; shiny Submetallic – has a dull coating; Nonmetallic – described as glassy,
not as shiny. earthy, pearly or greasy.

Galena
Hematite Calcite

Opaque – light does not pass Translucent – some of the light Transparent – allows light to
through. passes through completely pass through.

Pyrite Rose Quartz Quartz

2. Color – easiest to identify. Unreliable since slight impurities can affect color.

Rose Quartz
Smoky Quartz Purple Amethyst

3. Streak – the color of mineral in powdered form. It can be obtained by rubbing

the mineral across a streak plate.

B. Mineral Strength – determines how easy a mineral break or deform when exposed to
stress. Can be described through tenacity, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
Tenacity – the mineral’s resistance to breaking or deforming. It can either be brittle, malleable, sectile, or elastic.
Hardness – the measure of a mineral’s resistance to abrasion or scratching. A hardness scale developed by
Friedrich Mohs is used to determine the hardness of minerals.
Mohs Scale of Hardness

1. Talc 6. Feldspar

2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
 3. Calcite 8. Topaz

4. Fluorite 9. Corundum

5. Apatite 10. Diamond

Cleavage – exhibited when a mineral breaks and plane and breaks along random surfaces.
smooth flat surfaces are formed from breakage.

Fracture – exhibited if the mineral does not have a cleavage

C. Specific Gravity – a measurement used to describe the density of the mineral. It represents the ratio of the mass of
the mineral to the mass of equal volume of water. Common rock-forming minerals have a specific gravity between 2
and 3.

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. As such, common rock-forming minerals include: quartz, feldspar, mica,
pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, and calcite. These can be found in most of the surface rocks.

II. The Rock Cycle

A rock is any solid that is naturally found on
Earth. It may consist of minerals, other preexisting
materials. The process wherein rocks change into
sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, or igneous rock
is the rock cycle.
The interaction between landscapes and the
four spheres can physically break rocks apart and
chemically change their chemical compositions
through weathering. It is the process of
disintegration (physical) and decomposition
(chemical) of rocks. Continuous weathering
produces loose fragments of rocks and minerals
called regolith. There are two types of weathering:
physical and chemical.

Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering

 When a rock has the same chemical composition  When chemical reactions change the chemical
as the bedrock they are from. composition of rocks, leading to breakdown.

 May be through water – frost wedging (water  Water, when combined with dissolved materials,
enters through small cracks. Because of produces weak acids. This reaction may
continuous freezing and thawing, it cracks and contribute to acid rain.
breaks the rocks apart).

 Precipitate from dissolved materials in

groundwater has salt crystals that grow larger
and break the rocks apart.

 Fire – through intense heat that causes rocks to

expand.

 Plants and burrowing animals that breaks

through the ground.

 Sudden release of pressure causes the release of

fracture. As unloading continues, outer rocks
generate onion-like layers called sheets.
 If weathering occurs in mountains, large slabs of rocks detach and moves down due to gravity. This movement
is called mass wasting. It can be classified according to the type of movement and material involved. The types of
movements are falls, slides, avalanches, and flows.
Falls – occur when materials in steep slopes move downward without contact with the ground until they reach
the foot of the slope.
Slides – move the materials as one following a nearly straight line down the slope.
Slumps – move the materials as one along a curved surface.
Avalanches – most rapid movement where loose materials move chaotically.
Flows – the movement of materials when they become saturated with fluids.

Falls Slides Slumps Avalanches Flows

Smaller fragments that resulted from weathering and erosion are transported with the help of wind, water, and ice. Wind
carries smaller particles through saltation, bigger particles through creeping. Water carries the smallest sediments in solution
and suspension, pebbles are bounced, and large boulders roll along river beds. As materials are transported, the sediments may
undergo abrasion (scraping of materials). After transportation, these sediments will accumulate as a result of deposition.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition are responsible for shaping the Earth’s surface. Sediments undergo these
processes, then undergoes lithification (Greek word “lithos” meaning stone; lithification – stone making) to become sedimentary
rocks.
First, sediments undergo compaction – they are bound closely together by subjecting the sediments to high pressure.
After compaction, lithification occurs through cementation or recrystallization. Both lithification processes produce
sedimentary rocks.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – classified into clastic or detrital sedimentary rock and chemical sedimentary rock.
a. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks – formed by the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of different solid particles from
weathering. It can be further classified into five classes; conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
b. Chemical Sedimentary Rock – contains materials formed by chemical precipitation of minerals. Examples of these are
halite, rock gypsum, dolomite, and limestone.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS – preexisting rocks subjected into higher pressure and temperatures. This process is called
metamorphism. There are three kinds of metamorphism according to the setting where it occurs.
i. Contact Metamorphism – when magma intrudes a cooler rock, exposing the rock to higher temperatures but not higher
pressure.
ii. Burial Metamorphism – when rocks undergo higher temperature and uniform stress, buried in the ground.
iii. Regional Metamorphism – large masses of rocks are exposed to differential stress and high temperature.

During metamorphism, rocks are exposed to three agents, namely heat,

pressure, and chemically active fluids.
Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated. Foliation
refers to the arrangement of mineral crystals in the rock.
a. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks – exhibits parallel alignment of minerals. (e.g.
schist)
b. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks – has large interlocking crystals that are
randomly oriented. (e.g. marble)

IGNEOUS ROCKS – when preexisting rocks are subjected to too much

pressure and temperature, they melt. This produces magma which crystallizes and forms igneous rocks.
There are three common types of magma: basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic.
a. Basaltic Magma – low silica b. Rhyolitic Magma – high silica c. Andesitic Magma – Has properties
content, high temperature, low content, low temperature, very high in between basaltic and rhyolitic
viscosity, low gas content viscosity, high gas content magma.
 The magma would then be exposed to an environment where
crystallization would occur, resulting to a formation of igneous rocks. The
environment where crystallization occurs determines the type of igneous
rock. If a rock cools outside the surface, it is called extrusive or volcanic
igneous rock. If it cools underneath the surface, then it is an intrusive
or plutonic igneous rock.
Aside from the location of crystallization, the color and texture of
rocks can also be used to classify igneous rocks. The color of the
rocks determines the type of minerals present. On the other hand,
texture describes the overall appearance of rocks based on the size
and shape of materials present. If lava cooled quickly near the Earth’s
surface, then it would have an aphanitic or fine-grained texture. When
magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface, it has a phaneritic or
coarse-grained texture. If a rock that hasn’t been fully cooled yet is
placed in another environment, it develops a porphyritic texture. Lastly, if a molten rock crystallizes immediately, it
develops a glassy texture.

Aphanitic Phaneritic Porphyritic Glassy

 LECTURE NOTES IN EARTH SCIENCE
Chapter 3: Plate Tectonics and Earth’s History

I. Continental Drift Theory

 Proposed by Alfred Wegener
 States that continents have drifted around the world and have once formed
a giant landmass or supercontinent called Pangaea.
 Supported by geographical, biological, and climatic evidence.

Wegener pointed out the jigsaw puzzle fit of the current continents. He noticed
that the coastlines of South America and Africa seems to fit together. He also pointed
out the presence of mountain ranges having similar rock types and age but separated
by vast oceans.

The biological evidence came in the discovery of similar plant and animal fossils
in different continents separated by oceans.
Lastly, the climactic evidence that Wegener presented showed that a glacial period occurred during the late
Paleozoic Era in Southern Africa, South America, Australia, and India.

Even with compelling evidence, Wegener’s theory hardly convinced the scientific community because of
insufficient evidence regarding the movement of continents. Eventually, evidence led to more theories, some of
these are the seafloor spreading and plate tectonics theory.

Seafloor Spreading
 Mainly proposed by Harry Hess.
 Showed that the ocean floor is split along the ridge where magma
rises to form the new ocean floor. Because of this, rocks found
near the ridge are younger than those found farther.
 The ocean floor is moving at a rate of 10 cm per year.
 It is believed that continents move above the stationary ocean
floor. However, both continents and ocean basins move. What
actually moves are the plates. These plates above the denser
asthenosphere flow due to convection currents which carry the
plates with them.

Plate Tectonics Theory

The confirmation of the seafloor spreading proved that continents are not moving above the ocean floor.
Rather, it is the plates or fragments of the lithosphere. Underneath the lithosphere, is a fluid -like, weaker region in
the mantle known as the asthenosphere. Thus, the lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere.
In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes suggested that the movement in the mantle carries the plates along with it. The
Earth’s interior is very hot due to radioactive decay, which releases energy in the form of heat. Convection takes
place in the mantle, keeping the asthenosphere hot and weak. The convection currents produced in the
asthenosphere are the ones carrying the lithospheric plates and making them move.
The Earth has seven major lithospheric plates: North American, South American, Pacific, African, Eurasian,
Indo-Australian, and Antarctic. Interaction between these plates occur mostly along the boundaries, which have been
plotted using epicenters and volcanoes.
 Plate Boundaries
1. Convergent Boundary – two plates move towards each other. Also known as destructive margin. Can be
oceanic-oceanic, oceanic-continental, or continental-continental.
2. Divergent Boundary – two plates move away from each other. Also known as constructive margin.
3. Transform Fault Boundary – two plates move past each other. Also known as conservative plate margin.
Convergent Divergent Transform-Fault

The movement of plate boundaries and seafloor spreading are the ones responsible for the evolution of
ocean basins. This evolution started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast
ocean Panthalassa or “superocean”.

II. Earth’s History

Geologists were able to trace the history of Earth through relative and absolute dating.
A. Relative Dating – determines the order of events but not the specific time when it happened.
i. Law of Superposition – the most basic principle in relative dating. It states that in an undeformed
sequence of sedimentary rock, the layers found on top are the youngest, and the layers at the bottom
are the oldest. It was clearly stated by Danish anatomist, geologist, and priest, Nicolaus Steno in 1669.
ii. Principle of Original Horizontality – Also by Steno. Stated that an undeformed sequence is the one
where the layers are still in a horizontal position.
iii. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationship – determines which events happened first depending on which
rocks are affected. The geologic layer that cuts another is younger than the layer it cuts through.

iv. Unconformities
 Rock layers that have not been interrupted are considered conformable. However, there is no
such place in Earth that is completely conformable. Breaks in the record of the rock strata are
called unconformities. There are three types of unconformities: angular unconformity (tilted,
folded sedimentary rocks), disconformity (missing parallel rocks), and nonconformity (igneous
or metamorphic rocks below sedimentary rocks.)

B. Absolute Dating – more accurate method of determining the history of the Earth. It uses unstable elements
to determine the exact age of a rock.

C. Fossils – the remains of living organisms.

a. Body Fossils – formed from parts of an organism.
b. Trace Fossils – fossils that give signs or clues which life forms were present at that time.
c. Index Fossils – fossils only found in rocks of a particular age.

Index fossils found in different periods and eras.

III. Geologic Time Scale

A geologic time scale shows the arrangement of

rocks into a geologic column showing the correlation of
the relative ages of the rocks in all parts of the world.
It has subdivisions assigned, namely, eons, eras,
periods, and epochs. Eons represent the longest
amount of time (Phanerozoic and Precambrian). It is
followed by eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
The end of an era is marked by a change in life forms
on Earth. These eras are further divided into periods,
which are characterized by a less profound change in
life forms. Finally, periods are made up of few epochs,
the smallest unit in a geologic time scale.
The earliest evidence of life on Earth was the
cyanobacteria that have been present during the
Archean eon.

Paleozoic Era: Era of Old Life

- Literally means “era of old life”; paleo
means “old”, zoic means “life”.
- 542-251 million years ago
- Divided into Cambrian, Ordovician.
Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian,
and Permian.
- Cambrian and Ordovician – age of
invertebrates
- Silurian and Devonian – age of fishes
- Devonian – first amphibians and seed
plants
- Mississippian and Pennsylvanian (also
known as Carboniferous period) - amphibians
were dominant
- End of Permian – mostly amphibians
and reptiles
- End of Paleozoic – mass extinction;
formation of Pangaea

Mesozoic Era: The Age of Reptiles

- 251 – 65.5 million years ago
- Divided into Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.
- Reptiles are dominant.
- Cretaceous Period – existing birds, mammals, and flowering plants diversified.
- End of Mesozoic Era – mass extinction of dwelling dinosaurs and a few reptiles; breakage of Pangaea.

Cenozoic Era: The Era of Recent Life

- 65.5 million years ago.
- Mammals are dominant species.
- The Quaternary period, specifically the Holocene epoch, is the ongoing phase of the Earth’s history and it is
the period where humans evolved.
 LECTURE NOTES IN EARTH SCIENCE
Chapter 4: Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

I. Geologic Processes
 The movement along the different kinds of plate boundaries are the cause of the natural geologic
phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Earthquakes – the minimal rapid shaking of the ground due to the movement of rocks along fractures, known as

faults on Earth’s surface. The illustration on the left shows the distribution of active faults and trenches in the
Philippines.

Earthquake Hazards
1. Surface Rupture and Physical Damage – the most obvious hazard. Earthquakes with higher energy create
stronger ground motion, which can cause the ground to break and buildings to collapse.

2. Liquefaction – occurs in areas where the soil become saturated with water. When the soil can no longer
support the structures resting upon it, the structure begins to sink.
 3. Fires - can break out during or after an earthquake when damages happen along electric power lines,
substations, and power plants.
4. Tsunami – also knowns as harbor wave. It is generated when earthquakes occur on the seafloor.
5. Landslide – occurs when there is too much shaking of the ground, which loosens the soil, facilitating the
downward movements.

Volcanic Eruptions
There are two types of volcanic eruption according to magma composition:
1. Explosive – have magma that is highly viscous and contains large amounts of gases.
2. Hawaiian or Nonexplosive – have magma with low viscosity and low amount of dissolved gases.

Volcanic Hazards
Explosive volcanic eruptions release pyroclastic materials that are considered to pose the greatest threat.
 Pyroclastic often unable people to run since they are overwhelmed with what they are seeing.
 Too much pyroclastic material may bury people and severely damage the agricultural land and livestock.
 Pyroclastic materials that have settled along the slope of the volcano can get mixed with rainwater and start
a mudflow or lahar moving at high speed.
 Poisonous gases are also released by volcanoes which can be lethal to people, animals, and plants.
 Violent volcanic eruptions may happen underwater, causing tsunamis.

II. Hydrometeorological Phenomena

Tropical cyclones, monsoons, and thunderstorms are hydrometeorological phenomena often experienced in
the Philippines. These phenomena can cause severe damage to an affected area.
1. Monsoon – regional wind systems that are seasonally reversing. Reversing is attributed to the
different amounts of energy received by the landmass during summer or winter.
2. Tropical Cyclones – severe weather patterns. These are wind systems circulating around a low-
pressure area. Cyclones that form over the Pacific or Indian Ocean are called typhoons while cyclones
that form over the Atlantic Ocean are called hurricanes.
3. Thunderstorms – characterized by strong winds, heavy rain, lightning, and thunder

Hydrometeorological Hazards - are the product of strong winds and heavy rains.
 Storm surge – is the most destructive hydrometeorological hazard. It is the rise of the normal sea level
caused by winds directed towards the shore.
 Wind damage – the most obvious hazard of cyclones and thunderstorms since they are characterized by
strong winds. It can cause severe damage to infrastructures or send debris flying at high speeds, which could
be dangerous.
 Flood – the hazard brought about by heavy rains in places that are far from coastal areas.

III. Marine and Coastal Processes

Coastal processes, such as waves, tides, sea level changes, crustal movements, and storm surges
will result to coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.

Coastal Erosion – is the wearing down of the coastlines by the movement of wind and water. When cyclones occur
along coastal areas, the winds and waves carry the sediment away from the shoreline. To prevent coastal erosion,
stabilization of shoreline is necessary. There are three main classifications of stabilizing the shoreline:
1. Hard stabilization – done by building structures that will slow down the erosion on areas that are prone to
erosion.
2. Soft stabilization – includes the process of beach nourishment, wherein sand from an offshore location is
brought to an area with a receding shoreline.
3. Retreat – the option taken by residents near areas where coastal erosion is already severe.

Submersion – happens because of the change in the sea level, specifically, when it rises dangerously above the
normal level. This is due to the increase in global temperature which, in turn, melts the glacial deposits and increases
the overall sea level. Another factor that may cause submersion is the vertical movement of the plates. Submersion
will likely occur in reclaimed lands.

Saltwater Intrusion – is the movement of saltwater into the fresh aquifer. The natural flow is that freshwater which
is less dense, moves towards the denser saltwater. But if the freshwater is being withdrawn faster than it is being
replenished, then there will be a change in pressure and saltwater intrusion will occur.

IV. Mitigation and Adaptation

As a response to mitigate and adapt to hazards, the Philippine government created hazard maps.
These are developed to indicate the places where most of the natural disasters usually occur and will most
likely occur. In the Philippines, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) created a
Geohazard Mapping and Assessment Program implemented by the Mines and Geosciences Bureau, which
identifies areas vulnerable to geologic hazards or geohazards.
Aside from the development of hazard maps, action plans should be conceptualized to identify the
priorities for action and plan for the possible impacts affecting the country. Local programs should be
established to help the people who are most affected by natural disasters to recover from their losses.
Education is also a means for people to mitigate and adapt to natural disasters.
In preparation for natural disasters, information regarding what to do before, during, and after a
natural disaster is disseminated all over the country.