SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS USED

1. Solar cell modules: These are arrangements of many solar cells
wired in series, sealed between Glass and plastic and supported
inside a metal frame.
2. Photovoltaic device (PV): It is a device which converts light
energy into electrical energy.
3. Array: this is an assembly of several modules on a support
structure together with associated wiring.
4. Solar radiation: This is the measure of the solar energy received on
a specific area over a specified period of time. It is measured in
KWh/M2/day or Peak sun hours per day.
5. Direct radiation: is the type of radiation which comes in a straight
beam and can be focused with a lens or mirrors.
6. Diffuse radiation: is the type of radiation reflected by the atmosphere
or scattered by the clouds or dust.
7. Global radiation: This refers to the combination of diffuse and
direct solar radiation arriving on surface.
8. Solar irradiance: It refers to the solar radiation actually striking the
surface or the power received per unit area from the sun in watts per
square meter (W/M2).
9. Insolation: It is the measure of the solar energy received on a
specific area over a specified period of time.
10. Solar constant: this is the radiation which arrives at the
edge of the earth’s atmosphere at the rate of about 1350W/m2.
11. A crystal: This is the regular geometrical state taken up by elements
in certain conditions.
12. Peak sun hours: These are the number of hours per day during
which solar irradiance average is 1000W/M2 at the site.

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 SOLAR ELECTRIC TECHNOLOGY
Solar electricity is the electric power generated from sun light using devices called
solar cell modules.

SOLAR ELECTRIC THEORY

Solar electric system theory differs from mains or generator wiring in that the
system is based;
1. Low voltage DC, not 240V AC
2. It stores power in batteries
3. Power is generated on site by photo-voltaic equipment (PV)
4. For the system to be economical, all energy produced must be used
efficiently.
Previously, solar electricity was a new technology, used mostly for
telecommunication systems, water pumping and remote clinic power.
The early systems installed in Africa were un successful because of inappropriate
designs and poor maintenance.
Now days, due to the increased production of solar and reduced prices, the
application of solar electricity has widely increased in the local market.
Solar electricity is now the most viable power source for lighting, powering radios
and TV’S in rural areas that have not been electrified.

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APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER
The following are some of the important applications for which solar electric power is
being utilized;
 Providing power for house hold lights, TV’S, cassette players, radios and
small appliances.
 Used in small industries and institutions such as schools and small
businesses in rural areas for lighting, sewing machines, calculators, light
tools, computers, type writers and security systems.
 Applied in health centres for vaccine refrigeration and lighting. Such solar
refrigerators are also used to freeze ice packs and to keep blood plasma
cool.
 Water pumping. Arrays of solar cell module are connected to electric
pump to pump water from wells or bore holes for house hold utilities.
 Used in electric fencing which keep wild animals inside game parks and
out of farm land.
 Used for street lighting.
 Also used for road sign illumination.
 Used for railway and marine signal lighting.
 Used in protection of pipelines from corrosion.

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ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER
The following are claimed to be the advantages of solar electric power,
 They consume no fuel. Solar modules convert freely available sun light
directly into electricity without being used up.
 They produce electricity quietly without giving off exhaust fumes or
pollutants.
 Compared to conventional generator, solar electric systems require very
little maintenance because they have no moving parts and last over
20years.
 Solar electric systems are economical for many applications as the prices of
solar cells have been fallen.
 Solar electric systems can be tailored to the power needs of the individual
applications. They can be expanded easily by adding more batteries and
modules.
 Properly installed solar electric systems are safe. Risk of electric
shock is small because of the low system voltage.

DISADVANTAGES
 The initial cost of solar electrical systems is high by rural standards for
people to raise the cash to buy the systems all at once.
 Solar electric systems require batteries for energy storage which must
be carefully maintained.
 Appliances and lamps which run on low voltage are not easily available as
those run on mains power.
 There is a lack of trained technicians to design and install solar electric
systems which eventually reflect badly on solar electric technology when
installed by un trained technicians.

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 SOLAR CELL AND MODULES

THE PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT

Solar electricity is the direct conversion of sunlight to electricity. Light striking
solar cells is converted into electric energy. This occurs according to a principle
called the photo-electric effect.
The solar electric devices are also called photovoltaic or PV devices.

The figure shows the

Photo electric effect.

How solar cells work

Solar rely on the special electric properties of the element silicon which enable it
to act as both insulator and conductor.
Specially treated pieces of silicon “sort” or “push” electrons dislodged by solar
energy across an electric field o the cell to produce an electric current.
Solar energy is composed of millions tiny high-energy particles called photons.
Each photon carries a quantity of energy and some have more energy than others.

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When a photon of sufficient energy strikes a silicon atom in a solar cell, it knocks
the outmost silicon electron out of its orbit around the nucleus, freeing it to move
across the cell’s electric field.
Once the electrons cross the fields, they cannot move back. As many electron’s
cross the cell’s field, the back side of the cell develops a negative charge.
If a load is connected between the negative and positive side of the cell, the
electrons flow a current. Thus, solar energy inform of photons continuously
dislodges silicon electrons from their orbitals and “pushes” the electrons through
the wires.
More intense sun light gives a stronger current. If the light stops striking the cell, the
current stops flowing immediately.

SOLAR CELLS
The basic unit of solar electric production is the solar cell. Light striking solar
cells creates a current powered by incoming light energy. Solar cells produce
electricity when placed in sunlight

TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS

Several varieties of silicon-type solar cells and solar cell modules are available.
These include;
1. Monocrystalline cells
2. Polycrystalline cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

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MONOCRYSTALINE CELLS
These refer to cells cut from single crystals of silicon.
These cells have an efficiency of 11-16% i.e. if a solar radiation is striking the cells at
a perpendicular angle with an intensity of 1000W/M2, 110 to 160W/M2 of solar cell is
converted to electricity.
Monocrystalline cells are chemically stable, so they last for a very long time if
properly protected. Monocrystalline cells were the first to be developed for
commercial purposes.

POLYCRYSTALLINE CELLS or (Multi-crystalline)

These refers to cells made from many crystals.
They have a slightly lower efficiency than the monocrystalline cells
i.e. 9 top 13%.
They have a longer life time and do not degrade over time.
They are sliced from cast ingots of polycrystalline – made by different process
than monocrystalline silicon.

AMORPHOUS (Thin film)

These are cells made from silicon that is not in crystalline form and are less costly
than both poly and monocrystalline cells.
With these cells, the silicon material is deposited on the back of the glass or plastic
surface in very thin layers.
The surface is then scored to divide it into a number of cells, and electrical
connections are added. They are manufactured cheaply than any other type of
cells.
They are commonly used in toys, calculators and watches. They have a lower
efficiency of between 3 and 6%.

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SOLAR CELL MODULES
Arrangement of many solar cells wired in series, sealed between Glass and
plastic and supported inside a metal frame are called solar cell modules.
The process of making solar cell modules from mono- and polycrystalline silicon
cell involves several steps. Once properly prepared and treated with anti-
reflection coatings, solar cells are soldered together in series and then mounted
between glass and plastic and this process of mounting between glass and plastic
is called encapsulation.
During this process, the cells are sealed at high temperature between layers of
plastic and glass in a such manner that air and water cannot enter and corrode the
cells.
Modules are then cased in a metal or plastic frames to protect their edges from
twisting. The frame may have holes drilled in it for easy mounting and connection
point for earthing cables.
Positive and negative contacts from the cells are fixed onto the back of the module.
With most modules above 40Wp, the terminals are enclosed in a junction box.

Module ratings
All solar cell modules are rated according to their maximum output or peak
power.
The peak power (Wp) is defined as the amount of power a solar cell module can
be expected to deliver at noon on a sunny day when it is facing directly towards
the sun at standard test conditions (STC).
The module’s power rating in peak watts should be specified on the module by the
manufacturer or dealer.
Modules almost always produce less power than their rated peak power in field
conditions.

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ARRAYS
Often, a number of modules are required to meet the power requirements at a site.
When mounted together, groups of modules are referred to as arrays. E.g.
 a solar vaccine refrigerator might require an array of 3 to 6modules.
 A solar water pump extracting water from a 20M borehole for a community
might require an array of 15 to 20 fifty Wp modules.

OUTPUT OF SOLAR MODULES

The power output of a module depends on the following;
 The number of cells in the module
 The type of cells
 The total surface area of the cells
The output of the module changes depending on the following;
 The amount of solar radiation
 The angle of the module with respect to the sun
 The temperature of the module
 The voltage at which the load or battery is drawing power from the module.

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THE I – V CURVE
Each solar cell and module has its own set of operating characteristics that can be
described by the current – voltage curve, which is better known as the I-V curve.
I-V curves are used to compare solar cell modules, and to determine their performance
at various levels of insolation and temperatures.
The left hand side (I) gives the
current output of the module
depending on the voltage.
The bottom side gives the voltage
produced by the module at various
currents.
At each point along the line, it is
possible to determine the power of
the module by multiplying the
current times the voltage.
For example, imagine that the battery is being charged by the module, and that it
has reached 12.0V at point A. the current from the module is 3.2A at point A and
the power output is 38.4W.
i.e. current × voltage = power
3.2 ×12.0 = 38.4W
The shaded portion shows the boundaries with in which a battery is charged. Note that
as the battery gets fully charged, the charging current begins to decrease.

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POINTS OF INTEREST ABOUT THE I-V CURVE
 Isc the short circuit current.
This is the current measured in full sunlight, when an ammeter is attached to
the positive and negative leads of the module i.e. where the curve crosses the
0 volts at point B. This is the maximum current that the module is capable of
producing.
 Voc the open circuit voltage.
This is the voltage measured under full sunlight when a voltmeter is attached
to the positive and negative leads of the module.it is the point where the
curve crosses 0 amps at point
C. this is the maximum voltage that the module can produce on a sunny
day.
 Pm the maximum power point.
This is the point on the I-V curve where the module produces the greatest
power.
The maximum power point is always found at a position where the curve
begins to bend steeply downward i.e. at the knee, point D.
It is advisable to operate the module as near to the maximum power point as
possible.

Generally,
 The closer the knee of the I-V curve is to a square, the better output
characteristics of the module.
 The flatter the curve is, the poorer the quality of the module.
 Monocrystalline and polycrystalline modules have better I-V curves than
amorphous modules.

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Effect of temperature on a module output
Most solar devices have a lower output as they get hotter. As the temperature
increases, power output of a monocrystalline solar cells falls by 0.5% per degree
centigrade as shown in the I-V curve below. Thus a 5oC rise in temperature will
cause a 2.5% drop in power output.
This is important because, in strong sunlight, solar cell modules are usually warmer
than the thermometer temperature.
For this reason, installers are encouraged to mount modules on poles, on
structures above the roof, or in places where they are cooled by wind to keep
output as high as possible.

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Choosing a solar cell module
Modules should be chosen according to the energy requirements of the system
load. Other important considerations when choosing modules include;
 The number of cells making up a module.
 The type of the module.
 The short circuit current.
 The open circuit voltage.
 The current at load.
NOTE:
 It is a good idea to test the module using a multimeter in full sunlight
before buying it and more especially, when it is used.
 Compare its output with its rated output.
 If you cannot test it yourself, find someone who can help you.
 Remember some dealers do not know how to tell whether the module is
good or not.

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 WEATHER AND METEOROLOGICAL DATA

SOLAR RADIATION
Definition:
Solar radiation is the measure of the solar energy received on a specific area over
a specified period of time. It is measured in KWh/M2/day or Peak sun hours per
day.

 Sun shine reaches the earth as the type of energy called radiation. This
radiation is composed of millions of high energy particles called Photons.
Each unit of solar radiation or photons carries a certain amount of energy.

 Depending on the amount of energy that it carries, solar radiation

falls into different categories including;
 Infra-red i.e. heat
 Visible radiation (radiation that we can see0
 Ultra-violet radiation (with very high energy radiation)
All these groups of radiation energy arrive from the sun and are categorized
according to their wave length.

 Solar energy arrives at the edge of earth’s atmosphere at the rate of about
1350W/M2. This does not change throughout the year and is referred to as
the solar constant.

 The atmosphere absorbs and reflects much of it and only a maximum of

about 1000W/M2 reaches the surface in tropical countries.

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ABSORPTION AND REFLECTION OF SOLAR RADIATION BY THE
ATMOSPHERE

NOTE:
 Peak sun hours are the number of hours per day during which solar
irradiance average is 1000W/M2 at the site.
 Therefore, if an area can have an average of 5.2 peak sun hours per day at an
average of 1000W/M2, it would imply that, that area receives 5.2hrs ×
1000W/M2/day
= 5200Wh/M2/day Or
5.2KWh/M2/day which is the total insolation of the site.

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TYPES OF SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation can be divided into two types;
1. Direct radiation
2. Diffuse radiation
Direct radiation is the type of radiation which comes in a straight beam and can be
focused with a lens or mirrors.
Diffuse radiation is the type of radiation reflected by the atmosphere or scattered
by the clouds or dust. Clouds and dust absorb and scatter radiation thus reducing
the amount of radiation reaching the ground.
On a sunny day, most of the radiation is direct but on a cloudy day, up to 100% of
the radiation is diffuse. Together direct and diffuse radiation re known as global
radiation.
Only 1⁄3 or less radiation is received on a cloudy day. Therefore, it is necessary to
economise the use of energy when it is cloudy or design solar system which can
guarantee enough power in cloudy months.

Factors affecting the amount of radiation an area receives annually.

These factors include;
 The areas latitude
 Cloudy periods
 Humidity
 Atmospheric clarity
Near the equator, solar radiation is affected by cloudy periods. Long cloudy periods
reduce the amount of solar energy available.
High humidity absorbs and hence reduces radiation.

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SOLAR IRRADIANCE
Definition:
It refers to the solar radiation actually striking the surface or the power received per
unit area from the sun in watts per square meter (W/M2).

SOLAR IRRADIANCE RECEIVED OVER TIME ON A FLAT SURFACE

IN E. AFRICA

From the graph above;

 At noon, the amount of power received is the highest.
 In the morning and late afternoon, less power is received because the flat
surface is not at an optimum angle to the sun and because there is less
energy in the solar beam.
 The actual amount of power received at a given time varies with the
passing clouds and the amount of dust in the atmosphere.
 The angle at which the solar beam strikes the surface is called the solar
incident angle.

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  The closer the solar incident angle is to 900, the more energy is received on
the surface.
 If a solar module or device is turned to face the sun throughout the day, its
energy output increases. This practice is called Tracking.

USING METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS

When planning a solar system, you will need to estimate the amount of solar
radiation your site receives over the year.
Using records taped at meteorological stations, you can estimate the amount of
solar energy available. The most useful information is the monthly men daily
insolation in KW/M2.
NOTE:
 The mean daily sunshine hours measure the amount of hours that the sun
shines (up to 12), while the peak sun hours measure the actual amount of
energy received. (rarely more than 8KWh/M2).
 Locations in east and southern Africa receive between 3 and 8 peak sun
hours per day. The exact amount of insolation depends on the location and
time of the year

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SOLAR INSOLATION (Incident solar radiation)

Definition:
It is the measure of the solar energy received on a specific area over a specified
period of time.
It is measured in mega joules, KWh/m2/day and peak sun hours per day or
sometimes Langley’s per day.

The KWh/m2/day measures the amount of radiant energy collected at the site. It
corresponds closely to peal sun hours, for the number of hours per day during
which solar irradiance averages to 1000W/M2 at the site.
A site which receives 6 peak sun hours per day receives the same amount of
energy that would have been received if the sun had shone for 6 hours at
1000W/M2.
The irradiance at such a site changes throughout the day but still the energy is
equivalent to 6 hours of irradiance at 1000W/M2.

APPLICATIONS OF INSOLATION DATA IN PV

There are two main applications of insolation data in PV systems. These include;
1. Site planning
2. Solar system sizing

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IN SITE PLANNING
The insolation data of a site is a very important factor for the planning process of a
solar PV system.
In mountaneous areas or regions with high growing vegetations, it is wise to
measure and compare insolation data for several possible installation sites.
It therefore helps to identify the optimum location for installing a system. The target
should always be to select a site with maximum solar radiation.
IN SOLAR SYSTEM SIZING
The solar insolation data of a designated solar PV system site determines the peak
sun hours for that location. This factor is mostly important when sizing the PV
system components.

NOTE:
The amount of solar radiation depends mainly on 3 factors;
1. The location of the site
2. The time of the year
3. The time of the day

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 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

The following are the major components that make up a solar PV system;
 Solar modules
 Solar battery
 Solar charge controller (Regulator)
 The load
 Power conditioning units
 Wiring systems(cables)

SOLAR MODULES
Solar modules: These are arrangements of many solar cells wired in series,
sealed between Glass and plastic and supported inside a metal frame.
The purpose of the solar module is to harvest solar electric energy during the
day when exposed to sun light.
Many factors are considered for the selection of solar modules including the
following;
 The number of cells making up a module.
 The type of the module.
 The short circuit current.
 The open circuit voltage.
 The current at load.

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 SOLAR BATTERIES

Definition:
A battery is a group of electro-chemical cell i.e. devices that convert chemical energy
into electrical energy, connected in series.
A solar module produces electricity during the day time when the sun is shining.
the module cannot store energy.
When electricity should be used during the night, it must be stored in batteries
which chemically store electric charge.

BATTERY PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Fully charged batteries have –ve and +ve plates consisting of sponge lead and
positive plate (electrodes) consisting of lead dioxide (PbO2). The plates are sub-
merged in an electrolyte solution of sulphuric acid.
When discharging a battery, the Sulphur leaves the solution and moves over to the
lead plates and gives up an electron and the moving electron are electricity.
When recharging a battery, the Sulphur is driven back into the solution. These batteries
which can be recharged are called accumulators or secondary batteries.
As a battery is charged, electric energy is stored as chemical energy within the
cells. When it is being discharged i.e. when connected in a circuit with the load,
stored chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.

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TYPES OF BATTERIES
There are two most common types of secondary battery system on the world
market today and these are;
1. Lead-acid batteries
2. Nickel cadmium (NiCad) batteries

A. NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES (NiCad)

NiCad batteries operate on the chemical reactions between the positive Nickel
hydroxide electrode in a potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
A fully charged NiCad cell has a voltage of about 1.3V.

ADVANTAGES
 Light and available in small sizes
 Can be operated over a wide range of temperature
 Require less maintenance
 Can be completely discharged without damaging the cells
 Have a long life.

DISADVANTAGES
 Very expensive
 Very expensive to dispose off-Cadmium is considered very hazardous.
 Non-standard voltage and charging curves may make it difficult to use on
some equipment such as standard inverters and chargers.

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 B. LEAD-ACID BATTERIES
These batteries operate on the basis of chemical reactions between a positive lead
dioxide late, a negative lead plate and an electrolyte composed of sulphuric acid
with water.
During charge, lead dioxide accumulates on the +ve plate and the relative
amount of sulphuric acid in electrolyte increases.
When the battery is being discharged, lead sulphate accumulates in the –ve plate
and relative amount of water in the electrolyte increases.
A fully charged cell of lead acid battery is about 2.1 volts Chemical equation:
Pb + PbO2 + 2HSO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Discharge
Charging

HAZZARDS OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES.

1. They contain corrosive sulphuric acid.
Sulphuric acid can burn skin or eyes, burn holes through clothes and
furniture and it will damage cement floor.
Remedy/cure/solution:
Use a lot of water to wash it off and pour soda-bicarbonate on the acid
when it spills on the floor.
2. Batteries give off explosive hydrogen gas when they are being charged.
Therefore, the gas must be vented away to avoid explosion.
Precaution:
Do not smoke or carry open flames in the battery storage room.

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 3. Batteries contain a larger amount of energy that can cause an explosion of
fire if the battery terminals are accidentally shorted.
Precaution:
Take care and avoid short circuits.

TYPES OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Lead acid batteries fall into two categories;
1. Shallow discharge batteries
2. Deep discharge batteries

1. SHALLOW DISCHARGE BATTERIES (Automotive batteries)

These are designed to supply a larger amount of power for a shorter duration. It is
sometimes called a starter battery.
They are meant to get combustion engines going.
They have many thin lead plates which allow them to discharge a lot of energy
very quickly for a short amount of time which is un likely to damage the plates
inside.
But because they are manufactured locally cheap and widely available, that’s why
they are widely used for powering lights and TV’s in rural areas.
If used, they must be managed carefully. They are available as 40 – 100AH
automotive batteries.

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 2. DEEP DISCHARGE BATTERIES
These have thicker lead plates that make them tolerate deep discharge better.
They cannot dispense charge as quickly as he starter battery, but can also be used
to start combustion engines.
The thicker the lead plates, the longer the life span, all things being equal.
Battery weight is the simple indicator for the thickness of the lead plates used and this
is an indicator of a better battery which will tolerate deep discharge.
Antimony is added to the positive plate to enable battery withstand deep discharge
of between 50% to 80%. However, they have higher discharge rates and require
more frequent additions of distilled water.
These types of batteries are better for solar PV than the shallow cycle batteries.
They are preferred for solar electric systems because more energy can be taken
out of them than the shallow type without causing damage to the cell.
However, they are more expensive than the shallow type.

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RATED STORAGE CPACITY
The amount of energy a battery can store is called its capacity.
The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere hours (AH). This indicates the amount
of energy that can be drawn from the battery before it is completely disc charged.
The rated storage capacity is not an exact measurement of the battery’s size, as
the capacity changes with battery’s age, condition of service, the temperature and
the rate at which power is withdrawn from it.
If current is drawn from the battery at a higher rate, its capacity is reduced.
The capacity of lead acid batteries is reduced with decreasing temperature e.g. a
typical battery will hold about 20 less charge at 00c than one at 400c.

Note: Energy(Watthours) = Ampere hours × battery voltage.

E = AH × V (Wh)

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 CHARGE AND DISCHARGE

(a) CHARGE:

Definition:
Charge current is the electric current supplied to and stored in a battery.
The battery depends upon the rate of current at which it is
being charged.
Batteries are charged by solar cell modules, mains power connected to a
battery charger, diesel, petrol and auto-mobile engines attached to a
properly sized alternator or Generator. The amount of charge a battery has
received can be determined by the charging current i.e.
Q (battery charge) = I(A) × T(Hours) Q × V

= Energy in Watts.

(b) DISCHARGE
This is the state of the battery which is when its energy is being consumed
by the load.
The discharge current is the rate at which current is drawn from the battery.
If a lamp draws 1.5A for a period of 4hrs, it uses 6AHrs of energy.

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STATE OF CHARGE (SoC)
Definition: This is the measure of the energy remaining in the battery. E.g.

A fully charged battery has a state of charge of 100% and if 1⁄4 of its capacity is
removed, then its state of charge is 75%.

MEASURING BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE.

Two methods are employed for measuring the battery state of charge.
(a) The voltmeter
(b) The hydro meter

1. The voltmeter
As the state of charge of battery decreases, it’s voltage also decreases and this can
be measured by a voltmeter.
A solar battery at 100% state of charge has a voltage of 12.7V. when discharged to
50% state of charge, it’s voltage drops to about 12.1V and when completely empty
(dead) it is about 11.5V or lower.
2. Hydro-meter
The hydro-meter measures density or the weight per unit volume of the sulphuric
acid electrolyte in each cell and this is called specific gravity which is directly
related to the state of charge of a battery.
During charge in lead acid batteries, the sulphuric acid within each cell is
converted to water which has a lower density than sulphuric acid.
So, during discharge, the battery electrolyte becomes less dense and the battery’s
state of charge decreases. Hydrometers contain a floating scale with specific
gravity readings.

CYCLE, CYCLE LIFE AND DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

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A battery is charged during the day through a solar module and is discharged by the
load during the night.
Each charge period together with the discharge period is called a cycle.
The rated cycle life of a battery is the number of cycles a battery is expected to last
before its capacity drops to 80% of its original rated capacity.

Factors affecting the cycle life of a battery.

The actual cycle life of a battery is shortened by
 A deep discharge,
 High temperatures
 Too much discharge at a higher rate.
A deep discharge cycle is the cycle in which a battery is completely or almost
completely discharged.
NOTE: several deep discharges will destroy an automotive battery.

DEPTH OF DISCHARGE (DoD)

This tells how much batteries are discharged in a cycle before they are charged
again.
Shallow cycle batteries should not be discharged below 80% state of charge on a
regular basis.
Deep cycle batteries should not regularly be discharged below 40% state of charge.
Deep discharge cycle may occur during long cloudy periods or when the load is
much larger than the solar charge.

Expected cycle life of two battery types t various DoD’S

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 Daily depth of Modified Deep discharge
discharge automotive battery battery.
10% DoD 750 Cycles 7200 Cycles
50% DoD 310 Cycles 3000 Cycles
80% DoD 200 Cycles 1200 Cycles

NOTE: If the battery is very low after a week or cloudier weather, it should
immediately be charged by an alternative method.
Under these conditions, the load should be reduced to protect the battery until the
weather gets sunny again.

SELF DISCHARGE
This is a condition in which batteries lose their charge slowly when left standing
un charged.
This occurs because of the reactions within the cells of the battery. The rate at
which batteries lose their charge depends on the following factors;
 The temperature surrounding the battery
 The type of battery
 The age of the battery
 The conditional services given to batteries.
What should be done to avoid self-discharge?
 Store the battery off the floor in a wooden box or non-metallic tray.
 Keep the top surfaces of the battery clean (avoid accumulation of acid mist
on top i.e. dirty batteries.
 Keep the terminals clean and greased (use petroleum jelly but not grease).
NOTE:

31
  Lead acid batteries left in a low state of charge for long periods lose
some of their capacity due to a permanent chemical change in the plates
called sulphation. This affects its rated capacity or may not recharge at
all.
 NiCad batteries and GEL cells can be left discharged for long periods
without any damage.

OVER CHARGING
This where batteries are left to charge after being fully charged under the
presence of excess current flowing from the module on a sunny day.
Over charging the battery causes;
 the loss of electrolyte
 damage to the battery plates
 a shortened cycle life of the battery.
The loss of electrolyte by gassing is a chemical reaction which changes water in
the electrolyte to hydrogen. The gas escapes as bubbles causing two problems;
i) the level of electrolyte in each cell goes down. Therefore, distilled
water must be added to replace it.
ii) Explosive hydrogen gas is given off. to avoid the risk of explosion, this
gas must be vented from the battery storage room.

32
What should be done to avoid gassing and damaging the battery by
overcharging?
The following steps should be taken;
 A device called the charge controller should be connected between the
battery and the solar module. This controls the charging of the battery thus
prevents the loss of electrolyte by gassing.
 The battery’s state of charge should be checked regularly to determine
whether it is being over charged.
 If the battery is being regularly over charged, the load should remain on
longer, or if there is no charge regulator, the solar charge should be
disconnected when the battery is fully charged.

TYPES OF SHALLOW CYCLE BATTERIES

1. Automotive (S.L.I) batteries.
Automotive batteries are also called starting lighting and ignition
batteries. These are shallow discharge lead-acid batteries used
mainly for starting car engines.
Because of their thin plates, they are easily damaged when deeply
discharged i.e. 80% state of charge. They are not good energy storage
choices for solar electric system.
They should not be used below 80% state of charge, only remove 20% per
cycle.
During cloudy weather, they should be carefully maintained and taken for
charging in town if necessary.

33
2. Improved automotive (portable) batteries.
These are sold as solar or portable batteries with capacities between 70 and
100AH.
They have thicker plates, larger acid wells, and often with rope handles for
carrying batteries.
They are used as better alternatives than standard automotive batteries.

3. Captive electrolyte (GEL) batteries.

They use a non-liquid electrolyte to avoid the problems of water loss
through gassing.

Advantages.
 They are sealed at the factory; they don’t leak or spill and so they are
easily transported and require no maintenance.
 They withstand deep discharge and have a good cycle life
i.e. 2years when cycled 50% state of charge and 3years when cycled
to 25% state of charge at 25oC.
 They have a low self-discharge rate.
Disadvantages.
 They have a poor performance characteristic at high temperatures,
therefore, they should not be used in hot sites.
 They lose electrolyte when charged at high voltages.
Application.
GEL cell batteries (6-7AH) are used in several types of solar lanterns.

34
 4. Lead- calcium (maintenance free) batteries.
These batteries come in sealed cases and are sometimes sold for PV
applications.
They don’t require electrolyte re-fill but they don’t tolerate deep
discharge well and can be damaged if left in a partial state of charge.

5. Stand-by batteries.
These are used to power vital equipment like telephones exchanges in the event
of grid or generator failure.
They have thick lead plates (without addition of antimony) and are very
heavy.
They are not designed for deep discharge, therefore, they are kept in a
high state of charge as they are constantly on float charge.
They don’t have as long cycle life as traction battery. They are mostly used
in post offices.

DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES

1. Traction/motive batteries.
They are for purposes that range from fork lift operation to golf cart operation.
They tolerate deep discharge and have a good cycle life. They are
available in 2, 4 or 6V cases i.e. 1-3 cells.

2. PV flooded deep cycle batteries.

They are manufactured purposely for solar electrical applications.
They come n clear cases that allow easy viewing of the electrolyte level and
they are sold in 2-6V sizes.
They are expensive but are made to withstand deep discharges with a good cycle
life

35
 MANAGING AND MAINTAINING BATTERIES
Depending on the type, batteries will last between 2-10years or even longer if they are
properly maintained and managed. Maintaining batteries involves the following tasks;
 Check the state of charge regularly.
 Scheck the electrolyte level in each cell and replacing lost water only with
de-ionised water. If de-ionised water is not available, rain water will do.
Never add tap water to batteries.
 Cleaning the top of the battery prevents a higher rate of discharge.
 Cleaning the terminals and contacts ensures a good electrical contact with
the solar module and load. Application of petroleum jelly to the terminals
prevents them from becoming corroded.
 Giving the battery accessional equalizing charges to mix up the
electrolyte by burbling especially during cloudy season.

BAD CELLS
A battery may have a bad cell. This means that other cells in the battery are
working and only one cell has stopped working may be due a short circuit in the
plates.
When a battery’s voltage is low about 10.5V or less, but the state of charge in most
of its cells is high, the battery probably has a bad cell.
How to check for a bad cell?
 Measure the battery state of charge of each cell using a hydrometer
or voltmeter.
 Alternatively, remove the caps of all the cells and short the terminals with
an insulated wire. If a cell is bad, it will burble furiously and produce a
disagreeable smell.

36
NOTE:
 Never do this with a battery in high state of charge.
 It is advisable and usually more economical to purchase a new battery rather
than repair a single load cell.

ALTERNATIVE SOLAR CHARGING

Users should protect the battery from deep discharge by charging it with an
alternative method e.g. during length cloudy periods when the modules are un able
to keep batteries in a high state of charge.
 Charging with a battery charger from mains powered battery chargers.
 From the cars alternator either by running the engine when the car is
stationary for enough time to bring the battery to a high state of charge or
driving a car on a journey with a solar battery.
 Charging with a bicycle generator.
 Using a transformer, small batteries of 50AH, 6 and 12V batteries
can be charged.

37
SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLERS (REGULATORS)
Solar electric systems use charge controllers or regulators to;

- Manage the e electrical power produced by the modules,

- Protect the batteries and
- To act as connection point for all the system components.
Any solar electrical system must be managed so that the energy flow from the
batteries to the load is not greater than the energy harvest and so that the energy
flow into the batteries from the modules is not so high that it will cause damage to
the batteries, hence the charge controllers are used.

Characteristics and Functions of Charge Controllers.

 It provides a central point for connecting the module, the load and the
battery.
 It regulates the charging of the battery and allows the battery to be charged
up to a certain voltage. This prevents the boiling of the electrolyte.
 The low voltage disconnect is used disconnect the load automatically if
the battery falls below a certain point that is deep discharge and charging
levels.
 It allows the end user to monitor the system and locate potential
problems in the system.

38
Features of a charge controller.
When buying a regulator, check its rating and which features it has and always
keep the user’s manual.
Modern charge controllers are offering the following features;
 High voltage disconnect (over charge protection)
 Low voltage disconnects
 Battery state of charge regulation
 Equalizing charge
 Automatic load re-connection
 Automatic voltage selection i.e. 12/24V
 Temperature monitoring
 Positive grounding (earthing)
 Load times switches that connect and disconnect loads after a certain
amount of time.
 Ammeters and voltmeters to measure current and voltage.
 Blocking diodes to prevent current from flowing from the battery to
the solar when it is not working at night.
 Surge protectors for protection against rapid increase in power.
 Fuses and circuit breakers for system protection.
Part of the work of charge controllers is to inform the user whether the system is
properly working. Light emitting diodes (LED’s) beepers or alarms are used for
such purpose. E.g.
(i) The solar charge light indicates whether the current is flowing from
the solar array to the battery. If it does not come ON in either
presence or absence of sunlight, the following could be one or some
of the causes;
- Loose connection on the charge conductor
- Bad fuse or disconnected circuit breaker
- Loose battery terminals
- Bad cell or battery
- Broken solar cells or module.

39
 (ii) The low battery light notifies the user that the battery is in low state of
charge.
(iii) The battery full light tells the user that battery is fully charged and
to some controllers, that it has reduced the battery charging current
to trickle charge.
(iv) The battery disconnect continuously measures the state of charge of the
battery. If the voltage falls low, it disconnects the battery automatically
commonly for disconnect voltages between 11.1 to 11.9V.
(v) The charge regulator prevents the array from over charging the battery
by monitoring the state of charge. It turns the charge OFF and ON over
a period of time and the cut off voltage should be specified on the
controller.
Managing the system without a charge controller
Without using the charge controller will only rely on “good luck” to manage the
energy flow, and the results in a battery to last for every short time and thus a pure
reputation of solar energy.
When one cannot afford controllers, the following must be done;

 Learn to maintain the system

 Install safety devices such as switches and fuses
 Protecting the battery through careful energy management so that it is not
ruined.
 Plan to include a charge controller on the system when you can afford.
 Check the battery state of charge regularly with a hydrometer or a
voltmeter.
 Calculate the energy harvest of the module and adjust use so that it is
approximately the same as energy harvest. When the battery state of charge
is low, limit the use of appliances.
 Charge the battery by other means at least once every two months when
it is being over used especially during cloudy weather.

40
CHARGING CURVES
The three stage charging process
results in a faster charging
compared to
ON-OFF relay type or
constant voltage solid
state regulators.
Faster charging increases the
performance of the system by
storing more of the PV arrays
limited output.

The final float voltage setting reduces battery gazing, minimises watering
requirements and ensures complete battery recharging.
Battery voltage and current vary during the 3-stage charging process as follows;
1. Bulk: During this stage, the battery is charged at the bulk voltage
setting and maximum current output of the DC source. When the
battery voltage reaches the bulk voltage setting, the controller activates
the next stage (absorption). As the battery comes closer to this stage,
the status LED (green) blinks more time before pausing.
2. Absorption: During this stage, the voltage of the battery is held at the
bulk voltage setting until an internal timer has accumulated one hour.
Current gradually declines as the battery capacity is reached and
LED(green) blinks five times and pauses and repeats.
3. Float: during this stage, the voltage of the battery is held at the float
voltage setting.
Full current can be provided to the load connected to the battery at
this stage from the PV array. Once this stage is reached, the green
LED will be solid green.

41
 SOLAR PV SYSTEM SIZING AND DESIGN

1. PREPARATION
Before making a major investment in solar electric system, it is important to perform
some detailed planning.
If the planning is omitted, the solar electric system will most likely turn out to be;
 Less functional than expected
 More expensive than expected
These might cause disappointment which in turn would bring solar technology in
disregard.

2. SITE SURVEY
Part of the planning process should be a site survey on that location where the solar
electric system should be installed and the following considerations should be met;
 Where should the panel be installed
 Is the location partly shaded during peak sun shine hours?
 Could the installation be made safely taking the weight of the panel into
consideration e.g. roof top installation?
 Is there electrical installation already in place that should be partly used in
the solar electric systems e.g. lights, switches and cable?
 How far is the distance between panels battery and the load? This will
have an effect on the sizing of the cables.
 Is there a dry and ventilated space available for installing the battery?

42
 3. DATA GATHERING
The meteorological and solar radiation data can be obtained from different source.
The factor of peak sun shine hours at the site is very important for any further
sizing considerations.
4. SIZING SHEET
In order to design and size a solar electric system properly, the use of the sizing
sheet is very helpful.
The work sheet requires a certain input of data and allows to calculate the size of
the required components in multiple steps such as;
 The appliance required
 The system voltage
 The power rating of the appliance
 Daily use in hours
 Daily energy use requirements
 Sizing of the module
 Charge controllers
 Inverters
 Cables and fixtures

The work sheet below should be used to calculate the energy which must be
supplied by the modules each day to power all the appliances in the system.
Appliance Voltage Power Daily use Daily energy use
(Volts) (W) (Hours) (Watt hours)

43
 5. LOAD CONSUMPTION ANNALYSIS
The load is defined as the amount of electric power being consumed at any given
moment and it is measured in watthours.
Because the battery capacity and module output are generally measured in ampere
hours, solar electric planners often use ampere hours to indicate energy instead of
watt hours.
Example:
A 12V system in a house with 4 lamps and an 80W TV has an energy demand
of 250Wh/day. How many ampere hours does the system consume/day?
Solution:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Total required (AH) =
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
250𝑊ℎ
= 12𝑉
= 20.8AH
NOTE:
1. To determine the load for energy demand, it is necessary to select the
units that will rely on the system for power e.g. lights, radios, TV, etc.
2. Then to determine the wattage of each item either in watts or volt amperes,
check on the name plate. If only amperes are listed, multiply it with the
voltage.
3. The next step is to decide how many hours per day (average) each item is
to be used. The load estimate must be precise in order not to over size or
under size the system capacity and to avoid power shortage if under sized.

44
WORK SHEET
Appliance Voltage Power Daily Daily energy use
(Volts) (W) use (Watt hours)
(Hours)
Kitchen lamp 12V,DC 13 2 26
Bed room lamp 12V,DC 11 2 22
Sitting room lamp 12V,DC 13 3 39
Coloured TV 240V,AC 100 2 200
Total daily energy 287Wh
demand

SYSTEM ENERGY LOSS

This system loss is influenced by factors such as;
 Loading factor for the battery
 The use of an inverter
 Energy loss through resistance of cables

 The client and the technician must estimate system loss. To determine the
system energy loss is to add 15% to the total daily energy demand which
equals 43Wh.
 In the example above, the inverter is used to power the TV which is about
half the load. So another 15% of the TV load is calculated which equals
30Wh and this implies, total watts will be, 43 + 30 = 73Wh. This is
estimated energy loss.
 Therefore, the total daily system energy requirement will equal to: The load
demand + the system losses.
= 289 + 73
= 360Wh

45
CHOOSING SYSTEM VOLTAGE
Solar electric systems for home use are most often based on 12V or 24V, DC.
The advantage of 12V, DC system is that appliances are more readily available for
DC voltage.
The advantage of 24V, DC system is that the system is operating on a lower current
which has an influence on the cable sizing.
Now, taking 12V, DC system, the daily system charge requirement would be
determined as follows;

System charge requirement (AH)

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑊ℎ)
=
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
360
=
12
= 30AH
This will be the amount of charge that must be provided by the module each day.

SIZING THE PV MODULE

The size of the module or array is calculated using the daily total energy
requirement and the solar resource figures for the site as follows;
 Estimate the solar energy available at your site
 Check which month has the lowest mean daily insolation. This is called the
design month.

46
DIAGRAMS SHOWING MEAN DAILY INSOLATION PER MONTH

ANNUAL
AVERAGE
7 DESIGN MONTH 6.6
6.1
5.9 5.8
6 5.7 5.7
5.2 5.1
4.9
5 4.5
4.2 4.3
4
Peak sun hours
(KWh/SQ.M

0
Jan Feb March April May June AUG Sept Oct Nov
Jul Dec
y

MONTH Peak sun hours (KWh/M2)

January 5.2
February 5.7
March 5.7
April 4.9
May 4.5
June 4.2
July 4.3
August 5.1
September 6.1
October 6.6
November 5.9
December 5.8
Average 5.3

Note: most sites in East Africa have mean daily insolation levels of between 4
and 7 peak sun hours, so the value taken should be between 4 and 7.

47
Calculating the system design current.

The modules in the system must be chosen so that their energy output matches
the total daily system energy requirement.
Therefore, the average daily energy output of the modules must equal to the
daily energy requirement.

Design solar insolation value is determined as 4.2 peak sun hours and the daily
system charge requirement in (AH) is determined as 30AH.

30
System design current =
4.2

= 7.14A
Modules to produce 7.14A will be required.

Determining the module in watts

If the load demand and the losses equal to 360Wh/day and the mean daily
insolation of the site is 4.2 peak sun hours per day, it implies that;
𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Rating of module in watts =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

360
=
4.2

= 85.7Wp

48
CHOOSING THE SYSTEM BATTERY

When choosing the system battery, the following should be done;

 Determine the daily system charge requirement which is 30 AH as
calculated before.
 Determine the number of storage days (days of autonomy) required. This
is the maximum expected consecutive days of cloudy weather when the
battery will supply most system power.
In sunny areas, this number may be as low as 2-3 days and in places with
long cloudy seasons, the number of days may be as large as seven days or
more. For now, assume 2 days.
 Determine the maximum depth of charge as 0.4
 Finally, calculate system battery capacity as; Battery

capacity in AH
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
=
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐷𝑜𝐷)

30 𝑥 2
=
0.5

= 120AH

CHOOSING THE CHARGE CONTROLLER

Before choosing the charge controller, the planner must;
 Decide if a charge controller is required. Systems with modules
larger than 40Wp should invest in charge controllers.
 Decide what controller size is needed
 Decide what controller features are required.
Taking account of the system design current 7.14A, the charge controller can be
determined as 10A.

Example one:

49
The table below shows a load requirement of a solar PV system
Loads Power (W) Quantity Daily use (hours)
Indoor lights 3 4 3
Outdoor lights 5 2 8
Phone charging 5 1 2
Coloured TV 21” 60 1 3

Assume;
System power loss = 15% Peak
sun hours = 5 System voltage =
12V DC System efficiency =
90% Days of autonomy = 2
Battery depth of discharge = 60% Only DC
loads are used.
Calculate;
(a) Daily energy demand for the system in WH
(b) Daily energy requirements for the system in WH
(c) Daily system charge in AH
(d) Size of the module in W
(e) Size of the charge controller in A
(f) Size of the battery capacity in AH

50
Example two
A client has the following load demand
S/N LOAD POWER RATING IN QTY DAILY USE
WATTS IN HOURS
1. Lights 5 5 4
2. Laptop computers 25 2 2
3. 14” colour TV 40 1 4

Assume the following;

 Only DC loads are used
 System voltage = 12V
 Peak sun hours = 7hours
 Battery D.O.D = 50%
 Days of autonomy = 1
 System power loss = 5%
Calculate for the client the correct size of the following for his installation.
(i) Daily energy demand
(ii) Solar module current rating
(iii) Battery capacity

Assignment
Table below shows load requirements for a customer who is planning to install
solar PV in his house
S/N Items Qty Power rating in Daily use
watts in hours
1. 12V, DC lamps 2 5 3
2. 12V, DC colour TV 1 40 2
(Assume: P.S.H = 7hours, Battery max D.O.D = 80%, System voltage = 12V
and days of autonomy = 1)
Calculate the right size of:
(a) Solar module
(b) Charge controller
(c) Battery for this customer.

51
 INSTALLING SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
Once the installation has been planned and the necessary equipment obtained,
installation can begin.
This should be according to the local electric safety codes and so that no person
is injured or equipment damaged during installation.

RECOMMENDED INSTALLATION PROCEDURES

 Check to make sure that all equipment is on site.
 Lay cables to loads and attach lamps and sockets.
 Locate site for solar modules, lay cables and install array.
 Locate site for battery, lay cables and install.
 Locate site for controller, lay cables and install.
 Complete final condition sequence and commission the system.

INSTALLATION TIPS
 Before beginning an installation, make sure that all equipment
is at hand.
 Follow the recommended sequence of installation.
 Complete the installation with the help from an electrician.
 Always try to use proper tools for each task.
 Maintain high working standards.

52
 RECOMMENDED TOOLS FOR SOLAR ELECTRIC
INSTALLATION

S/N TOOL PURPOSE OF TOOL

1. Crimp tool Attaching ring & spade lugs to wires
2. 12V DC soldering Connecting wires to terminals and
iron fixing electrical parts
3. Multimeter Testing connections, measuring
voltage, current and resistance.
4. Star and flat Tightening screws and terminals
screw drivers
5. Hydrometer Measuring battery state of charge
6. 12V hand drill Drilling holes for various purpose
and bits
7. Tape measure For measuring distance and marking
wire clip placement
8. Remote and paper Taking notes on measurements
9. Hack saw Cutting metal frames
10. Utility knife Various cutting jobs
11. Wire cutter and Preparing cables
stripper
12. Torch Laying cables in dark places
13. Pliers Holding bolts and nuts during tightening

14. Adjustable Tightening battery terminals

spanner
15. Hammer Various construction tasks
16. Shovel Digging trenches
17. Level Checking grade of mount
18. File Smoothing rough surfaces after
cutting
19. Extension cord Running power from battery to the
loads
20. Product literature for For some of reference information
fixing
components
21. Roll punch Punching holes in walls
22. Funnel, plastic Filling batteries
tubing, gaggles
53
SAFETY

Solar electric systems have a good record for safety. Never the less, installers
should be aware that the equipment they are working with has potential to
cause serious injury if safety standards are not observed.

In general, to avoid shock risks when working with electricity, you should:
 Always remove rings and jewelry
 Use insulated tools
 Keep loose cables and metal tools away from the control, batteries and
arrays so that they do not accidentally come into contact with live
terminals or leads.
 Always be aware of possible shocks from modules and batteries
and take steps to avoid them.

Safety with Batteries

 Battery acid is extremely corrosive. Wear protective clothing and glasses
and use a funnel to avoid splashing when refilling
 Batteries are heavy. Carry them up right from the bottom or by the
handles provided. Never, lift batteries by the terminals.
 Make sure that the batteries are located in a ventilated space. Do
not smoke near by the batteries.
 Beware of the electrical charge in the batteries. Do not short the battery
terminals to avoid the possibility of explosion and shock.

Safety with modules

Modules are expensive and potentially breakable. So;
 Transport with care. Beware of the backside of the module which is
especially fragile.
 Beware of shocks when wiring and installing modules. Disconnect or
cover the array with a blanket when wiring to avoid shocks.

54
Safety with ladders/roof mounting.
A high percentage of the injuries from solar electric installations are caused by
falls from the roof. When on the roof:
 Use stable ladders, and position them correctly. Have somebody
hold the bottom part of the ladder.
 Use ladders or planks while walking on the roof to prevent tin from
ripping.

First Aid.
First Aid kits should be on the site during any installation.
 Keep the kit well-stocked and ready.
 Make sure some one knows how to use it.

LAYING CABLES
Laying cables is usually the first task during a solar electric installation.

Wiring guide-lines
During wiring of the solar PV system components, the following guide lines
should be followed:
 Use a circuit diagram and keep a copy near the control box.
 Follow the established cabling colour codes.
 Always label cables during work.
 Always double check polarity when wiring.
 Earth module frames and loads.

55
 Electrical wiring codes
East African/British colour coding system

Direct Current
Black - negative
Red + positive

Alternating Current
Blue/Black neutral
Brown/Red live/line
Yellow/Green earth

American Colour coding system

Direct Current
Black - negative
Red + positive
Green/bare 0 ground

Alternating Current
White neutral
Black live/line
Green/bare earth
Red or any other “live”

56
MOUNTING SOLAR MODULES
Solar cell modules should be mounted in places where they receive a maximum
solar radiation and where they are not to be shadowed, over heated or covered with
dust.
They should be positioned as close as possible to the batteries and in places that
are safe from vandalism and theft.
Along the equator, the sun’s position varies from 230 norths to 230 souths over the
course of the year.
Modules should be mounted with 5-100 north or south tilt towards the direction of
the sun during the cloudiest periods
A rule of thumb is to mount modules facing the equator at an angle which equals the
sites latitude plus 100.

57
HANDLING SOLAR CELL MODULES
These are usually built in aluminium frame and are covered with glass that
withstands the impact of hailstones.
However, like any other piece of glass, modules can be broken by stones and
may break if they are dropped. Once broken, modules are impossible to repair
i.e. they are ruined.
 Care must be taken when transporting modules especially the back side
which must be protected during travel or work.
 Care must be taken not to punch through the frame into a cell if holes are to
be drilled in the frame for mounting purposes.

Choosing the mounting site

When choosing the mounting site of the modules, the following should be
considered vital;
 Modules should be mounted off ground, away from dust, animals and
people.
 They should not be located close to chimneys as soot and smoke will
cover the module surfaces.
 They must not be covered by shadows during peak sun hours
 Modules should not get too hot as his affects their output performance.
 Modules should be mounted in a secure place to avoid theft.
 Modules should be mounted as close as to the battery and control to
avoid voltage drop.

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SUPPORT STRUCTURE
 They shall be made of permanent materials and should be strong
enough to withstand climatic conditions without deflection of
vibrations.
 Frame support structure and other metal parts shall be made of no clouding
materials and should be protected from corrosion by galvanizing or
painting.
 If wood is used, it should be coated with a suitable vanish.
 Bolts, nuts and washers used should also be water proof and corrosion
resistant.

METHODS OF MOUNTING
1. Roof top mounting
This is done by use of racks or brackets to fix
the array to the roof structure.
Their advantage is that they are safe and
secure, although it may be difficult to
clean modules mounted high on the
roof.
Brackets may be constructed so that they
pivot downward for easy
cleaning. Roof top mounting.

2. Pole mounting
These are popular with systems that have up to four
modules.
They keep the modules well off the ground in secure
highly visible places.
Pole mounts are more expensive that roof top mounts as
they require metal pipes and sometimes a foundation.
Pole mounting method

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3. Ground mounting
These are used for modules of four or more.
They secure modules to racks fixed in
concrete foundations and may be
fenced off to protect the array from
animals and curious people.
Panels shall not be mounted closer than
0.8M from the ground to avoid shading
by
grass or other vegetation. Ground mounting method

4. Tracking mounts
These are available which automatically track
the sun throughout the day.
With this system, the output can be increased
up to 25%. However, tracking systems are not
economical for small installations as they add
costs and complexity to the system as well as
increasing system management work.
Fixed modules must be aligned so that
rain water runs off the module. Track mounting method

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WIRING THE MODULES
Un less batteries are being charged to power equipment, do not attach the
module leads to the battery or control until the final connection sequence.
The following practices are advisable during wiring;
 Use properly sized cables
 Earth the entire array by connecting the frame and negative terminal of
each module to an Earthing cable.
 Wire the junction boxes carefully.
 If there is more than one module, they must be wired in a
configuration that matches the system voltage.

Wiring the modules in series

If the system voltage is 24V, the two standard modules must be wired in
series to charge two 12V batteries in series.
The effect is to increase the system voltage and maintaining a constant value
of charging current.

Series connection of modules and batteries.

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Wiring the modules in parallel
If the system voltage is 12V and more than one modules are to be connected in an
array, they must be connected min parallel charging one or two or more batteries
in parallel.
The effect is to increase the system charging current and maintain the system
voltage constant at 12V.

Parallel connection of modules and batteries

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BATTERY AND CONTROLLER INSTALLATION
After installing the module, the battery and controller should be installed in the most
appropriate room or building.
Choosing the Battery Location
The battery should be located in a cool, vented room where is little traffic. The
following considerations should be taken into account when locating and
installing the battery.
 The battery should be installed as close as possible to the array and
controller to reduce voltage drop.
 The battery should be installed in a clearly ventilated room to keep off
hydrogen gas released during charging.
 The battery should be located in a place where the
temperature does not get too high.
 Batteries should not be kept on the floor, as this will increase their self-
discharge rates. Wooden vented boxes are advisable to be used.
Mounting the charge controller
It should be mounted on a piece of wood but not the wall as it is easier to fix the
board on the wall than a small controller device.
It is better to fix the controller on a hinged board so that wires run in the space
behind the board and passed out through drilled holes near the controller terminals.

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MAINTAINING AND SERVICING SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
This explains how to take care of your solar electric systems and how to fix them
if they break down.
Routine maintenance
These are maintenance practices that are done on regular basis to identify and
prevent problems before they result in the system failure.
Battery maintenance
When maintaining batteries, beware of the acid and do not short the terminals.
Always do the following tasks;
 Clean the top and outside of the battery, the terminals and posts until
they are shiny.
 Replace the clean terminals and tighten bolts. Apply petroleum jelly to
connected terminals.
 Check the level of electrolyte and top up in case of reduced electrolyte.
Add de-ionised or distilled water until the level is above the plates.
 Always check the battery state of charge. If the SoC is low, reduce use
of the load.
 Records should always be kept regarding battery SoC, age and performance.
This allows the user to judge more easily whether it needs replacement.
Module maintenance
Since modules do not have moving parts, they require minimum maintenance.
 Always inspect modules for dust and clean with water and if necessary,
with a mild soap.
 Always check connections in the junction box at the back of the module
for tightness and that wires are not eaten by rodents.

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Wiring and control
It is useful to check the wiring at least once a year, especially in places where it
might be chewed by rodents, tempered with or accidentally pulled.
 Check the tightness of screws on all connector strips, controls, switches.
 Inspect the system wire runs for breaks, cracks in the insulation or
places where it has been chewed by rodents.
 Inspect joint boxes for loose connections, insects and ensure that they are
water tight.
 Check for switches to ensure that they are operating properly.
 Check for fuses to find if any has blown and if so, find the cause and
repair or replace it.
 Check the indicator lamps on the control to ensure that they are all in
good working condition. If any is no properly functioning, rectify the
problem.
 Check grounding wires to make sure they are still intact.

TROUBLE SHOOTING
This means fixing problems as they occur.
The first thing to do when trouble shooting is not to panic because most problems
have very simple causes. This can be discovered simply by checking a few key
places.
The battery is the most likely source of problems in small solar electric systems.
It is especially useful to have a voltmeter when trouble shooting as;
 You can use it quickly to measure the batteries state of charge
 Can easily check for broken wires and shorts
 Can check the output of the module and measure voltage drops
Also learn how to tell whether a fuse is blown where you buy your fuses and
electrical equipment.

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Detailed trouble shooting guide
Problem Cause How to fix
 There is no solar charge  Check and fix connection to
Battery state of charge is low  Battery acid low module
 Bad connection to control  Add distilled water to cells
“Battery low” indicator comes on, terminal  Check for broken wires or
low voltage disconnect turns OFF  Defective battery or bad cell loose connection
load, or battery state of charge  Loose or corroded battery  Check state of charge of each
below 11.5V terminal cell. If there is a significant
 Dusty modules difference between cells,
replace or repair
 Over use of system  Clean and tighten battery
 Battery will not accept terminals
charge  Clean modules
 Voltage drop between module  See “blown fuse” section
& battery too high
below
 Defective controller  Leave appliances and lamps OFF
for a week to allow recharging or
recharge battery by other means
 Find age and history of battery.
Replace if old or if ruined by
careless use
 Check voltage drop. Replace cable
with larger diameter if required
 Check operation of the
controller with dealer.
Replace or repair if
necessary

 Short circuit along wires to  Locate and repair short

No solar charge modules circuit
 Loose connection in wires  Locate and repair loose
Solar charge indicator does not light connecting battery to the connection
up during the day. There is no control  See “blown fuse” below
current in the module  Blown fuse  Clean module with water and
 Thick coating of soot or dust on soft cloth
module  Check for broken cells, glass
 Broken module or poor connection inside
module. Replace
solar cell module.

Lamps Lamps
 Bad tube or globe  Replace with new lamp
Appliances or lamps do not work  Bad ballast inverter  Locate broken or loose wire and
 Bad connection in wire repair
One or more appliance fails to  Switch is “OFF”  Turn switch “ON”
come ON when connected
 Tubes or globes have very short  Check voltage system: too low
lifetimes. or too high?
(voltage is always lower when load is
ON)

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 Appliances Appliance
 Bad connection in wire  Locate broken or loose
 Switch is OFF wire and repair
 Bad socket  Turn switch ON
 Broken appliance  Check socket. If bad,
replace. Check fuse in
socket
 Try appliance where
there is a good power
supply. Replace or
repair.

 Short circuit along wire to solar  Locate and repair short

Blown fuse cell module, battery or cell circuit
When the fuse is removed, the wire  Fuse was too small  Use fuse 20% larger than
inside is broken.  Lightning or power surge combined power of loads
 Replace fuse

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