University of Gondar

Institute of technology
Department of biomedical engineering
Biomedical imaging system
Digital x- ray
Group members …………………………….. ID number

1) Yemkru Salehu………………………….01221/09
2) Mingste Shibabaw ………………………00841/09
3) Yared Matsentu…………………………..01205/09
4) Mengistu Wallie ………………………….00784/09
5) Elias Mekonnen…………………………
6) Yigzaw Getachew……………………….01243/09
7) Surafel Asmare…………………………..01055/09

Submitted to instructor: biruhtesfa muhabaw

Submission date: 2/11/2020 G.

Acknowledgement
First of all, we would like to express our gratitude to our GOD for everything. Then we
would like to thank Mr. Bruhtesfa Muhabawu our biomedical imaging system lecturer for giving
us this chance. Finally, we would like to thank all UOG comprehensive specialized hospital
radiology department and biomedical Engineering staffs for their help on giving us useful
information about digital x-ray.

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Contents
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................V
History of the device........................................................................................................................1
Design specification.........................................................................................................................2
X-ray Imaging System components design principle......................................................................8
principle requirements to generate X-radiation...........................................................................8
basic schematic representing an x-ray tube..................................................................................9
Factors causes x-ray tube failure:..................................................................................................10
The High Voltage Power Supply...............................................................................................11
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITRY...........................................................11
OPERATING CONSOLE..........................................................................................................16
Other parts of digital radiography..............................................................................................18
Rejection of scattered radiation technology...........................................................................19
Challenges and Limitations of digital x ray...................................................................................20
Spatial resolution........................................................................................................................21
Sensitivity...................................................................................................................................22
Average cost of Digital X-Ray...................................................................................................22
Radiation dose of digital x ray.......................................................................................................22
What we expect from biomedical engineers over the limitations of digital x ray.........................23
Error occurring in digital radiography...........................................................................................23
Clinical applications of digital radiography..................................................................................27
Comparison between digital and analog x ray...............................................................................27
References......................................................................................................................................29

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Table of figure

Figure 1 Step-up transformer......................................................................................................................11

Figure 2 Autotransformers..........................................................................................................................12
Figure 3 Rectifier circuit.............................................................................................................................13
Figure 4 Filament Circuits...........................................................................................................................14
Figure 5 Tube current vs. applied tube voltage............................................................................................15
Figure 6 Three phase generator..................................................................................................................15
Figure 7 operating consols.........................................................................................................................16
Figure 8 Control circuit................................................................................................................................18
Figure 9 Rejection of scattered radiation technology.................................................................................19
Figure 10 Collimator...................................................................................................................................20
Figure 11 Spatial resolution with square wave..........................................................................................21
Figure 12 Error by sofeware........................................................................................................................26

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Content of table

Table 1 Design specification.......................................................................................................................2

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Abstract
On this paper we are intended to observe a working digital x ray practically. Detail explanation
about digital x- ray history, specifications to consider while purchasing a machine, design
principle of each and every component including errors occurring has been described.

Understanding Errors and Limitations of digital x-ray are the main aim in this project to give the
solution for this Errors and Limitations. Comparing digital x-ray with conventional are also
performed to indicate the technology update.

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History of the device
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. Digital radiology has overtaken
conventional screen-film radiography since it was introduced in the mid-1980s.
Digital imaging uses sensor of solid-state, and information is presented and stored as an
image using a computer.

Digital radiography is a form of radiography that uses x-ray–sensitive plates to directly

capture data during the patient examination, immediately transferring it to a computer system
without the use of an intermediate cassette. Advantages include time efficiency through
bypassing chemical processing and the ability to digitally transfer and enhance images. Also,
less radiation can be used to produce an image of similar contrast to conventional
radiography.
Instead of X-ray film, digital radiography uses a digital image capture device. This gives
advantages of immediate image preview and availability; elimination of costly film
processing steps; a wider dynamic range, which makes it more forgiving for over- and under-
exposure; as well as the ability to apply special image processing techniques that enhance
overall display quality of the image.
Digital x-ray in the Gondar referral hospital was installed 2010 EC and performance of
the device is evaluated by adjusting kV and mA on the computer as described by the
technician aimed to perform the following tasks for diagnosing purpose;
Bone fracture
TB
Obstruction
Kidney stone
Tumor

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Design specification

1 Scope

i) Supply, installation and commissioning of 1 no. X-ray system and a Digital X-ray Flat Panel
Detector for the radiographic inspection of weld joints, castings, verifying the cleanliness of
pipes etc., conforming to the following technical specification.

ii) The offered system will be used to perform conventional film radiography as well as digital
radiography with job manipulator and digital flat panel detector.

2 X-Ray Systems

Table 1 Design specification

2.1 X-ray Tube: The offered X-ray tube shall be constant potential, metal - ceramic,
bipolar, bifocal, directional and conform to the following requirements
i) Maximum Tube voltage Constant DC, 320 KV
ii) Focal Spot Size 0.4mm X 0.4mm (Fine)
As per EN 12543 or equivalent
international standards 1mm X 1mm (Standard)
iii) Max. Power (Fine/Standard) 0.8kW/1.8KW
iv) Max. Tube Current at 320 KV 2.5mA/5.6mA
v) Max. leakage allowed <5.0 mSv/h
vi) Emergent Beam Cone angle 40°X 30°
vii) Inherent Filtration Beryllium Window and
minimum 0.5 mm Cu
viii) Coolant Oil
ix) Duty Cycle 100%
x) Input Power Supply 220 V, 50 Hz
2.2 Control Panel
i) Control Panel shall be microprocessor based with
-LCD Display
-Automatic Warm up
-Diagnostic mode
-Automatic exposure programing for minimum of 100 storable programs
ii) Selectable pre-warning time and mains input voltage 220 volts ± 10%, 50 Hz
iii) True measure and display of KV and mA in continuous steps of 0.2 kV and 0.1 mA
iv) Inter connecting cables of suitable length and gauge for connecting the control unit
with the HV generator should be supplied
2.3 High Voltage Generator
i) X-ray machine shall have a transformer based high voltage generator (oil cooled)

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 with rugged construction, suitable for industrial application, to apply required voltage to
the X-ray tube.
ii) The system shall feature a compact, solid, insulated HV module
iii) The high voltage generator should be oil insulated
iv) Necessary high voltage cables of standard length (15 meters approx.) to move the
tube in all directions. The cables shall have flange connections
a) Tube Voltage 20-320KV
b) Tube Current 0.1mA to 40 mA
c) Input Voltage 220 Volts ± 10%
v) The party shall provide all the technical details and the details of the model being
supplied along with the quotation.
2.4 Cooling System
i) X-ray machine shall have efficient oil cooling system containing oil to air heat
exchanging system, oil to water heat exchanging system and chiller.
2.5 Laser Centering Device
i) Laser centering device/collimators shall be provided in addition to telescopic
centering device for ensuring the proper centering of the X-ray beam and to measure the
beam angle
2.6 Tube Suspension (To be quoted separately as optional):
i) X-ray Tube shall be suspended by a new DANA system (belt suspension with hoist)
which should be similar to the existing DANA system. Vendor may visit Engine
Division to study the existing DANA System.
ii) The necessary arrangements required for suspension of tube with DANA should be
included in the above offer of DANA system.
2.7 The following items shall be supplied as standard
i) All the necessary wiring and cabling (suitable power cables, control cables and other
connecting cables) is under the scope of the supplier.
Providing suitable incoming power to control the operation and earthing is in the scope
of HAL
ii) Suitable integration and solution kits
iii) Necessary Safety devices
2.8 Accessories
The following accessories shall be quoted separately:
i) Radiation Survey meter with a) It shall be portable, battery operated and shall
the following features have digital display
b) It shall have the dual capability to perform as
radiation survey meter and to measure radiation
dosage
c) The measurement shall be in milliRoentgen per
hour (mR/hr) for radiation rate and in milli
Roentgen (mR) radiation Dosage
d) It shall have auto ranging with range for radiation
rate 0-5000 mR/hr and dosage range 0-5000 mR.
The least count shall be 0.1 mR/hr radiation rate and
0.1 mR radiation dose

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 e) Instrument has to be calibrated for the following
points
1. 1.0 mR/hr
2. 3.0 mR/hr
3. 25 mR/hr
4. 100 mR/hr
5. 500 mR/hr
6. 1000 mR/hr
Calibration certificate shall be provided.
ii) Densitometer with following a) A table top model densitometer shall be
features supplied to measure density (from 0 - 4.0 D) of X-
ray films. The least count shall be 0.01 D
iii) 2 Nos. Calibrated X-ray Film a) This is traceable to NIST SRM 1001 X-ray step
Step Tablet tablet (The United States National Institute of
Acceptable Makes: Standards and Technology). The step tablet shall
AGFA/KODAK/ have at least five densities ranging from
EQUIVALENT 0.9 through 4.1
b) A calibration certificate shall be provided with
step tablet indicating the tablet ID and recorded
values of each step density and shelf life
iv) Film Viewer with the a) 14x17 inch viewing panel
following b) 4 inch high-intensity spot illuminator
features c) Variable light intensity
d) Unique cooling system designed to protect
valuable radiographs
e) Standard footswitch for ease of operation
f) Easy access for maintenance and bulb
replacement
g) Delron film holder for main screen
h) High-intensity spot for reading films with density
of 4.0D or greater
v) X-ray film auto processor with microprocessor control to process industrial X-ray
films shall be supplied conforming to the following technical specification (This shall
be quoted separately as optional)
a) It shall be heavy duty machine with table top operating type
b) It shall have auto developing tank, auto intermediate washing tank and auto fixing
tanks, auto final washing tank and auto drier facilities with rollers for movement of film
c) Developer and fixer tanks shall be of minimum 10 to 13 liters. Wash tanks shall be of
minimum 9-11 liters. Developer temperature of 26 °C to 40°C
d) Replenishing tanks shall be provided for developer and fixer with controls over
replenishing rates
e) Buzzer shall be provided to indicate that the film has gone fully inside the
developer tank. It shall eject the developed film on the daylight side
f) Proper heating elements and fans shall be provided for the drier. Knob shall be
provided to regulate the fan
g) It shall be able to process sheet films (14" x 17" maximum and 4" x 4" minimum)

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 and roll films (35 mm x 2 meters, 50 mm x 2 meters and 70 mm x 2 meters)
h) Suitable film feeder tray shall be provided with identification marks for feeding films
i) Suitable film collecting tray shall be provided
j) It shall have controlled heating facility and temperature display (LED display
showing temperature in steps of 1°C and plus-minus arrow keys) developer and fixer
k) It shall be suitable to operate with 230V - 240V at 50Hz frequency, 15 amps current
l) Option shall be given for control of total of total film processing time. Processing
speed shall be minimum 20 cm per minute. With minimum processing time of 5
minutes and maximum 10 minutes
Technical Terms & Conditions for X-Ray Film Auto Processor:
a) The supplier shall provide printed catalogue for the item quoted
b) The supplier shall provide calibration certificate for processing speed, replenishing
rate, temperature controllers
c) The supplier shall provide two sets operating manual and maintenance manual during
installation
d) The supplier shall provide details of customers to whom such facility is supplied
e) The supplier shall train people during time of installation at HAL works
vi) Any other item which is required for smooth functioning of the unit shall be quoted
separately as optional
3 Digital X-Ray Flat Panel Detector
3.1 Active Sensor Area of the panel 205 mm x 205 mm
3.2 Pixel (Min. requirements) 1024 X 1024 at 200µm pitch
3.3 A/D Conversion Minimum 14 Bits
3.4 Interface Gigabit Ethernet
3.5 Housing Aluminum or suitable
3.6 A suitable fixture for flat panel should be supplied
3.7 Accessories i) Cables and necessary input and output devices
(USB) to connect it to the Computer
3.8 Detector characteristics i) Shall be given as per ASTM E2507 or equivalent
international standards
3.9 Software i) The detector software shall be capable of
operating with Windows 7 (OS) or higher (This
shall be with licensed software for OS and
Applications)
ii) It should also be capable of performing the
detector calibration
3.10 Personal Computer A brand new Personal Computer having the
following configuration shall be quoted:
-Hard Disc Capacity: 1 TB or better
-RAM Capacity: 8 GB or better
-Processor (Intel Core i5 or better): 2.4 GHz or
better
-Monitor: 18 inch or better
-All the accessories like mouse, keyboard, power
cable etc.
-Frame grabber shall be provided that picks up

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 image information supplied by the detector
Note: Other than the configuration and accessories
for PC mentioned above, any special type of
hardware required for interfacing with the X Ray
system will be in the scope of supply of the party
3.11 Printer A suitable A4 laser color printer shall be quoted
separately as optional
3.12 Manipulator i) Four Axis job manipulator with motorized motion
controlled by joystick suitable for maximum job
load capacity of 10 kg and casting having dimension
300 x 300 mm
ii) X,Y,Z axis travel 500 mm each axis
iii) Rotary axis - 360 deg
iv) Tilt axis is also provided with +/- 15 deg
v) Fixtures for four types of parts should be
supplied.
1. Orbital welds
2. Weld test pieces
3. Casing rear
4. Cleaning pipes
4 Power Supply i) Single phase AC 220V, 50 Hz
5 Safety i) The machine should be provided with all safety
features to protect the machine and the operator,
while in operation, from possible damages/injury
ii) The technical standards and regulations followed
in design of the machine should be clearly indicated
6 Spares i) A detailed list of spares required for the
maintenance and operation of the equipment for a
period of two years shall be quoted separately as
optional
7 Pre Dispatch Inspection i) A pre-dispatch inspection may be conducted,
subject to HAL's discretion, by HAL's Engineers at
the supplier's works. All the technical features of the
system shall be demonstrated during the PDI
ii) The X-ray system shall be cleared for dispatch
only after clearance by HAL's engineers
8 Installation and Commissioning i) The installation & commissioning of the complete
system (along with cooling arrangement) shall be
done by Supplier’s
Engineers at HAL site within the stipulated time
from the receipt of the machine at HAL site
ii) The supplier shall bring their own tools and
tackles necessary for installation and
commissioning
iii) After installation, trial runs shall be conducted
demonstrating the technical parameters like Max

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 Voltage, Max Current, Fine and Standard focal spot
sizes as mentioned in pt, no. 1. (ii)
iv) The machine shall be accepted after
satisfactory installation, commissioning, machine
start up, and trial runs
9 Documentation i) The supplier shall provide AERB (Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board) NOC, (No objection Certificate)
and type approval certificate.
ii) Two sets of operation and maintenance manual
along with one set of soft copy in CD should be
supplied along with the machine
iii) All the software (licensed) used in the machine
should be supplied in original CD's. All the data
backups, ghost image of OS, the necessary device
drivers should be supplied in USB or DVD
iv) Manufacturer's certificate for X-ray equipment
mentioning the Make, Model, Sl. No., Tube current,
Tube Voltage must be provided
10 General Terms and Conditions i) Technical brochure of the offered model should be
enclosed along with the quotation
ii) The offered model should be a commercially
proven model. The offered model should have been
supplied to any of the manufacturing industries and
it should be in operation. The list of the
manufacturing industries to whom the offered model
is supplied should be provided along with the
quotation.
iii) Supplier should have a strong
manufacturing/sales & post sales base in India.
iv) The supplier must be willing to take up AMC for
the machine after the
completion of warranty, if required by HAL
v) The supplier shall provide an undertaking that the
equipment supplied will be supported (with spares
and service) at least for 10 years from the date of
supply of the equipment
vi) The technical and commercial bids shall be
submitted separately under the two bid system
vii) All offers should be accompanied by clause by
clause compliance / deviation statement for the RFQ
specification

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X-ray Imaging System components design principle
Three Principal Parts of an X ray Imaging System

1. xray tube

2. operating console

3. highvoltage generator

Other parts are

- Detectors
- Grids and collimator
- Picture archiving and communication system (PACS)
- Computer software
- Diagnostic display

Principle requirements to generate X-radiation

Where do the electrons come from?

You already know that matter is made up of atoms, and atoms have electrons that orbit around
the nucleus in shells. All we need to do is get the electron free of their orbit. How do we do this?
The answer is fairly simple. If we take a piece of conductive wire and pass a current through it,
the wire will heat up due to the resistance in the wire. The heat of the wire excites the electrons
and they will break away (boil off) from the wire to expend the energy picked up from the heat
of the current. When the energy of the electron is expended, it will return to the wire to become
heated again. So this heated wire serves as our source of electrons.

Why do the electrons need to be accelerated and how is it done?

Our second requirement is to get the electrons traveling at high speeds. The reason we need to
propel the electrons at high speeds is because the energy that the electron possesses and can
transfer is dependent on its velocity. The higher the velocity of the electron when it interacts with
an atom, the greater the energy of the radiation that will be produced. Propelling the electron is
fairly simple. Since unlike charges (positive and negative) attract, and electrons possess a
negative charge, all we need is a positive charge nearby to attract the electron. We can
accomplish this by placing a piece of metal (anode) a short distance away from the wire filament
(cathode).

When we apply a voltage to this anode, we place a high positive charge on it. This high positive
charge acts much like a magnet, only it is attracting free electrons. The positive charge will
possess a strong attractive force to the negative charge of the electrons that are boiling off of the
filament. This attractive force pulls the electrons towards the anode at high speeds. By increasing
the voltage applied to the anode we can increase the speed of the electrons.

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What does the target material do?

The third and final requirement is to have a target material for the electrons to interact with. By
placing some sort of matter between the electrons (filament) and the positive charge (anode) we
meet our need. Also, the anode itself can be used as the target. In high voltage X-ray generators,
a special target material (tungsten) is usually embedded into the anode. This gives the electrons a
suitable material to interact with and produce x-rays. When the electron hits the target material,
several things can happen. The electron can be absorbed by an atom and its energy transferred to
the atom, the energy of the electron can cause another electron to be knocked out of its energy
shell, or the electron may just slightly interact with other atomic particles. Radiation will be
produced in all of these cases, but the energy of the radiation will be different.

basic schematic representing an x-ray tube

Modern X-ray tubes come in many shapes and sizes, normally they are of the glass or metal-
ceramic tube (envelope) style. As compared to early gas filled X-ray tubes, modern tubes are of
the high vacuum style. The modern techniques of tube design have allowed for smaller tubes,
extended tube life, and more efficient and stable operation.

The means of acceleration of the electrons is provided by applying a potential difference

(voltage) across the tube anode and cathode and is independent of the voltage and current across
the filament.

The x-ray tube is technically referred to as an envelope. Typical construction may be from blown
glass or metal-ceramic styles. Glass envelope tubes are still common today, although they have
definite disadvantages to the newer metal-ceramic designs. Due to the tremendous amount of
heat generated during X-ray production, glass suffers from thermal and mechanical shock.
Metal-ceramic materials do not suffer damage from the excessive heat to the degree that glass
does and are rapidly replacing the glass style tube.

The Cathode

From the above illustration let's look at each of the components separately beginning with the
cathode. The cathode is the negative terminal of the tube assembly and includes the filament,
which is a small-coiled wire that is commonly made from tungsten. The filament provides the
electrons for acceleration to the target (anode). Tungsten is metal with the desired properties for
filaments, you have probably seen a tungsten filament in a light bulb before. The filament is
normally powered by an alternating current that is supplied to it by a separate transformer.

In many of the X-ray tubes, the current supplied to the filament ranges from a few hundred
micro-amperes to several milli-amperes (mA). Filament current may be varied or fixed to
maintain a constant tube current. Remember from our earlier discussion that the filament
supplies the electrons. Adjustments in current to the filament varies the number of electrons that

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will boil off the filament. This in turn controls the number of X-rays that the tube is generating.
Filament current controls the X-ray intensity.

The Anode

The positive terminal of an x-ray tube is called the anode, it serves three important functions, (1)
it provides a complete circuit for purposes of accelerating the electrons, (2) it houses the target
material, and (3) it helps to cool the tube. We already mentioned before that the generation of X-
rays generates a tremendous amount of heat. If the heat in a tube was ignored, the target material
that is embedded in the anode would be destroyed in a short period of time. The anode is
typically made from materials with good thermal properties to dissipate heat. Copper and
tungsten are common anode materials. In addition to using thermally conductive materials for the
anode, alternate means of cooling that may be employed are gas, oil, water, or air.

Does the density of the target material matter?

As previously mentioned, the anode also houses the target material. As an integral part of the
tube, the target requires special consideration. The target provides the means for electron
interaction (bombardment). The target is commonly made from tungsten and other materials like
cobalt, iron, or copper. Another important characteristic of the target material is its density. The
material must be of high atomic mass for electron interaction. Remember that when the electron
interacts with the target atoms the result is the generation of X-rays. Low density materials do
not provide sufficient density for interaction.

Factors cause x-ray tube failure:

1, Thermal Characteristics of the xray tube

Enormous heat is generated in the anode of the xray tube during xray exposure, this heat must be
dissipated for the xray tube to continue to function During an exposure lasting 1 to 3 seconds, the
temperature of the anode may be sufficient to cause it to glow like an incandescent bulb. But this
heat is dissipated by radiation. Between exposure, heat is dissipated, primarily through
conduction but some heat during conduction is conducted through narrow molybdenum neck to
the rotor bearings. And excessive heat of bearings will result in increased rotational friction and
may cause an imbalance to the rotor anode assembly. Bearing damage is another cause of tube
failure. One example of xray tube thermal stress is during fluoroscopy, during fluoroscopy, the
xray tube current is usually less than 5 mA, unlike in radiography a hundreds of mA is used.
Under such fluoroscopic situations, the rate of heat from the rotating target attains equilibrium
with the rate of heat input, and sometimes this rate is sufficiently to cause a defects in the surface
of the target. However, when continuous heat delivered to the rotor assembly, the oil bath, and
the xray tube housing, not only the bearing will fail, but also the glass enclosure can crack and
failure of the tube housing.

2, Intermittent Change in Tube Current

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 Even in normal use of xray tube, the temperature of the filament is high, the tungsten atoms are
slowly vaporized, and the plate in the glass or metal enclosure. This will cause an abrupt and
intermittent change in tube current, which often leads to arcing and tube failure.

The High Voltage Power Supply

Medical diagnostic high-voltage supplies do not generate any electrical energy. They rather
convert AC mains power to high-voltage DC output, and usually augment the function of X-ray
tubes with a variety of auxiliary signals and electrical supply. In this sense, X-ray generators are
intelligent voltage step-up and current step-down electronics, delivering the required tube voltage
for the generation of X-rays and other power.

Radiologists often associate the “generator” with its user interface, which often comprises a
major part of the user interface of a general purpose X-ray system

ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITRY

X-ray generators consist of several electrical components, including transformers;
autotransformers; diodes, triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes; rectifier circuits; and filament circuits.

Transformers

Transformers perform the task of “transforming” an input voltage into an output voltage and
function according to the principles of electromagnetic induction. The generic transformer is
composed of two distinct, electrically insulated wires wrapped about a common iron core.

High voltage is obtained with a transformer, in which a conversion from low into high voltage is
achieved through a process called electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction is an
effect that occurs with changing magnetic fields and alternating electric current.

Figure 1 Step-up transformer

Where Np = the number of coil turns on the primary side of the transformer,

Ns = the number transformer of coil turns on the secondary side of the transformer,

vp = the voltage applied on the primary coil,

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 V = the voltage produced on the secondary coil.

The secondary voltage can easily be determined by multiplying the turns ratio transformer (i.e.,
secondary to primary turns by the known input voltage)

Autotransformers

Autotransformers convert voltage and current based on the principles of self-induction. The
autotransformer is composed of an iron core wrapped by a single coiled wire attached to the
input power source. Access points to the wire coil (ie, taps) are connected to the output wires. An
AC waveform applied on the input wire coil creates a magnetic field that permeates the iron core
and induces an electromotive force on the coil itself, creating variable voltage. A selectable
output voltage (usually a lower voltage) is available at the specific tap locations. The peak output
voltage depends on the overall number of coil turns in the autotransformer between the two input
wires relative to the number of turns between the two taps that connect the output wires.

Figure 2 Autotransformers
 Rectifier Circuits

Rectifier circuits are composed of two or more diodes arranged to divert the flow of electrons
through a single path of a multipath circuit. A bridge rectifier is an electrical circuit composed of
multiple diodes on the secondary side of the high-voltage transformer in an x-ray generator. The
bridge rectifier diverts electron flow through the high-voltage circuit to ensure correct polarity of
the cathode (negative) and anode (positive) at all times.

during the first (positive) half cycle of the AC waveform, one side of the transformer is
maintained at one-half the positive peak voltage, and the other side is maintained at one-half the
negative peak voltage. Electrons flow from the negative to the positive side of the circuit.
Through one side of the bridge rectifier, the electrons pass through only one diode, as two others
actively block their flow. Thus, the electrons are routed through the cathode of the x-ray tube to

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the anode and back into the bridge rectifier circuit. At this juncture, any one of three diodes in
the rectifier circuit will allow the electrons to pass,

but only the diode directly connected to the positive pole of the transformer will conduct. In the
next half-cycle, the polarity of the transformer is reversed. The electrons flow from the negative
pole (opposite side of the transformer from the previous half-cycle), through the bridge rectifier
through only one diode, to the x-ray tube, and back to ground. For this half-cycle (reverse
polarity), the other two diodes pass electrons through the circuit. Therefore, the applied voltage
across the x-ray tube always has the correct polarity, and a rectified AC waveform with two
lobes per cycle is produced.

Figure 3 Rectifier circuit

Filament Circuits

The filament circuit consists of a step-down transformer connected by output lines to the focal
spot filaments in the cathode of the x-ray tube. When voltage is applied to the xray tube, a
current passes through the selected filament: This is the filament current. Electrical resistance
causes the filament to heat up and release electrons by thermionic emission. The number of
electrons released is related to the filament current: The higher the current, the higher the heat
and the greater the number of electrons released. When a high voltage is applied to the x-ray
tube, all free electrons released from the filament surface are accelerated toward the anode. This
flow of electrons constitutes the tube current, which is the rate of electron flow from the cathode
to the anode. Thus, tube current is controlled by but not the same as filament current. Filament
current (1 - 10 A) is much greater than tube current (1-1,000 mA), usually by a factor of 10 or
more

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The filament current is adjusted through a Series of resistors (or a variable rheostat) to control
the heating and subsequent thermionic emission of electrons.

Figure 4 Filament Circuits

Space charge is the accumulation of electrons around the filament before high voltage is applied
to the x-ray tube. Like-charge repulsion of the electrons creates a columbic force that quickly
equals the force of thermionic emission, creating a steady-state transfer of dcctrons to and from
the filament surface. Space charge has an important impact on the relationship between filament
current and tube current, particularly when an x-ray tube is operated at tube potentials below 40
kVp.

At tube potentials below 40 kVp, space charge-limited operation occurs; that is, the accumulated
electron cloud surrounding the heated filament does not instantaneously accelerate to the anode
in the x-ray tube. In these cases, because of the nonlinear relationship between filament current
and tube current, space-charge compensation circuits are implemented to adjust the filament
current so that an accurately known tube current can be delivered.

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Figure 5 Tube current vs. applied tube voltage
Three-Phase Generators

A three-phase six-pulse generator is corn posed of a high-voltage circuit consisting of two delta
configurations of transformers, one on the primary side and one on the secondary side of the
circuit (Fig 17). Each delta configuration contains three separate yet interconnected transformers,
each operating independently with line voltages of different phases. Abridge rectifier circuit
containing six diodes (two diodes per transformer) is necessary to ensure the correct polarity and
electron flow through the x-ray tube. The designation “six pulse” refers to the number of pulses
per cycle produced from the secondary delta configuration. Output voltage for a six-pulse system
varies from the peak voltage on the order of 13%-25% (compared with 100% variation for a
single-phase generator).

Figure 6 Three phase generator

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OPERATING CONSOLE
The part of the xray imaging system most familiar to the radiologic technologist is the operating
console. The operating console allows the radiologic technologist to control the x-ray tube
current and voltage so that the useful xray beam is of proper quantity and quality. Radiation
quantity refers to the number of x-rays or the intensity of the x-ray beam. Radiation quantity is
usually expressed in milliroentgens (mR) or milliroentgens/milliamperesecond (mR/mAs).
Radiation quality refers to the penetrability of the xray beam and is expressed in kilovolt peak
(kVp) or, more precisely, halfvalue layer (HVL). The operating console usually provides for
control of line compensation, kVp, mA, and exposure time. Meters are provided for monitoring
kVp, mA, and exposure time. Some consoles also provide a meter for mAs. Imaging systems
that incorporate automatic exposure control (AEC) may have separate controls for mAs.

Most operating consoles are based on computer technology. Controls and meters are digital, and
techniques are selected with a touch screen. Numeric technique selection is sometimes replaced
by icons indicating body part, size, and shape. Many of the features are automatic, but the
radiologic technologist must know their purpose and proper use. Most xray imaging systems are
designed to operate on 220 V power, although some can operate on 110V or 440 V.
Unfortunately, electric power companies are not capable of providing 220 V accurately and
continuously.

Figure 7 OPERATING CONSOLE

Automatic Exposure Controls

Automatic exposure control is an integral part of most modern x-ray generators. Its circuitry is
composed of detectors that measure the exposure incident On the x-ray receptor and that provide
feedback signals to the timing switch of the generator predetermined sensitivity settings are

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matched to the speed of the x-ray receptor to achieve optimal-quality radiographs by turning off
the power to the x-ray tube after the necessary x-ray exposure.

Current Control

The current control on an X-ray system commonly includes some type of a panel meter or digital
display with units of miliampers (mA). The control is a rheostat connected to the circuit that
allows adjustment of the current in the filament of the X-ray tube. Adjusting the current being
applied to the filament results in variations in the radiation intensity. Remember that the filament
provides the electrons for interaction with the target. When the tube current is varied, the number
of electrons being supplied to the anode (target) varies.

 Voltage Control

The voltage control on an X-ray system is similar to the current control in that it includes some
type of metered display and a rheostat in the circuit. The units of the meter are usually kilovolts
and the control is often labeled kV. This voltage is the electrical potential between the anode and
the cathode of the tube and is referred to as the tube voltage. Variations in the tube voltage
affects the energy of the radiation; penetrating power varies with the voltage. Increasing the tube
voltage increases the speed of the electrons interacting with the target. Remember from our
previous discussions that the energy of radiation is a function of the wavelength. Increasing the
energy results in a shorter wavelength X-ray photon, which has greater penetrating power.

 Time Control

The third control feature of an X-ray system is the timer. The timer is no different then one you
set when baking cookies. It may be an analog or digital display of some sort. The function of the
timer is simply to control the duration of the exposure, in other words, how much time the tube is
generating radiation. It is, however, connected to the circuits of the system. When the time has
elapsed, the system shuts down and no more radiation will be produced until the system is reset.

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Figure 8 Control circuit
Other parts of digital radiography
 Digital radiography detectors

Storage phosphor or photo stimutable phosphor system is used to obtain radiograph in digital
form which are suitable for computer based storage and processing. This method is also
commonly known as computed radiography. The method also uses a cassette containing a screen
coated with phosphor similar to that used in conventional screen film. However, the phosphor
used in the intensifying screens emits visible light immediately upon absorption of x-rays which
is called fluorescence. The phosphor in PSP systems responds to irradiation with x -rays by
storing electrical charges in a pattern matching to the pattern of absorbed x-rays intensities. The
pattern is read later by a scanning laser device. Laser causes localized heating of the phosphor
which leads to stimulation of the metastable trapped charge. The stimulation of the metastable
trapped charge leads to conversion of the trapped charge into visible light, which is called
delayed The second step is to produce the electric signals with photodiodes converted from the
light.

Characterizing parameters of detector performance

There are three important imaging quality parameters, density, contrast and sharpness that
Measure the X-ray detector technology.

Grayscale is a measure of dynamic range which Quantifies image density. Detective quantum
efficiency (DQE) is a measure of signal-to noise ratio which quantifies image contrast.
Modulation transfer function (MTF) is a measure of spatial resolution which quantifies image
sharpness.

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Rejection of scattered radiation technology
Digital detectors are subject to the same deleterious effects on image contrast by scattered
Radiation as conventional screen-film systems. Instead of moving the X-ray grid to remove Lead
strip lines from the radiographic images, several digital radiography detectors use an Alternative
approach of using grids with very high densities, more than 78 lead strip lines per cm.

Figure 9 Rejection of scattered radiation technology

Technically improper usage of the grid and arrangement of the X-ray tube

Improper alignment of the X-ray and grid produces an image which lacks smoothness of lead
strip lines. Wrong alignment of X-ray beam and grid causes asymmetric density image.

Formation of asymmetric image can be assessed with two similar density tissue or organ imaging
if the image density is somehow varied that may be an indication for asymmetric imaging. the
most common indication is chest radiography observing right and left lung densities or by
density measuring device.

Collimator

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Collimator is attached to the x ray tube below the glass window where the useful beam is
emitted. Lead shutters are used to restrict the beam. A mirror and light source allows us to
restrict the beam to the area of interest. Collimation is our greatest tool in keeping patient
exposure as low as possible.

Figure 10 Collimator
Picture archiving and communication system (PACS): The imaging data of digital radiography
can be sent to display monitors, high-definition laser printers, and archiving and communication
system. The full benefit of the digital radiography system can be achieved by using the PACS
with a high performance computer system.

Computer software: The digital radiography must have appropriate PACS and sufficient
processing capacity for the needs of a particular health facility.

Diagnostic display: Grayscale contrast range (e.g., 256, 1024, 3061 and 4096), spatial resolution
(e.g., 1600dotsx1200lines, 2048dotsx1536lines, 2560dotsx2048lines), and brightness are the
main quality factors for the diagnostic display. The capacity of data processing is another factor
and it depends on the display memory.

Challenges and Limitations of digital x ray

 Poor spatial resolution.
 Increased sensitivity to scattered radiation.
 More expensive than screen film radiography.
 X ray uses radiation which can cause cancer, if you are exposed to it over prolonged
period of time.
 Do not provide much information like MRI &CT scan.

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  Non familiarity of radiologists to the working principle of the machine.

Spatial resolution
Spatial resolution in radiology refers to the ability of the imaging modality to differentiate two
objects. Low spatial resolution techniques will be unable to differentiate between two objects
that are relatively close together.

It is determined both by the detector characteristics and by factors unrelated to the receptor. The
second category includes unsharpness arising from geometrical factors Detector-related factors
arise from its effective aperture size, spatial sampling interval between measurements and any
lateral signal spreading effects within the detector or readout.

Obviously, it is a pre-requisite for clinical images of excellent quality. However, it should be

appreciated that not all image receptors demonstrate the same performance in this regard

The maximum spatial resolution of an imaging system can be readily obtained by imaging a
resolution test object - an example of which is shown in the Figure below.

Figure 11 Spatial resolution with square wave

The test object consists of narrow parallel slits in a lead sheet at spacings which decrease to
beyond the maximum resolution of the image receptor. The minimum spacing resolved in images
is called the Limiting Spatial Resolution and can be determined to be about 3.5 line pairs/mm
from the figure.

Note that the width of each slit in the test object is the same as that of the adjacent piece of lead,
so that the radiation intensity transmitted through the test object can be considered in profile to

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be represented by a square wave - see panel (b).

A Spatial Period (usually measured in mm) can be used to characterize this square wave and is
equal to the width of one line pair, i.e. the width of a slit plus its adjacent piece of lead. Its
reciprocal is called the Spatial Frequency, which is generally expressed in line pairs/mm
(LP/mm) or cycles/mm.

Sensitivity
The X-ray sensitivity (S) depends on the amount of X-rays stopped, which depends on both the
device cross section and its thickness, and hence, the sensitivity of the detector is calculated by:

S=∫[IX-ray(t)−Idark]dtD×VS=∫[IX-ray(t)−Idark]dtD×V …………(1)

where, IX-ray and Idark are the current under X-ray irradiation and in the dark respectively, D is
the dose and V, the detector volume.

Average cost of Digital X-Ray

On the other end of the spectrum is a factory-born digital radiography (DR) unit. These are, by
far, the most expensive way to go digital. They offer big advantages over CR in terms of image
processing times. There are no cassettes involved and the time between image acquisition and
digital rendering on the workstation is a matter of seconds.

Image quality and acquisition time are comparable between factory DR systems and analog
systems retrofitted with DR panels. The primary advantage a factory system holds over a retrofit
is that many models feature automated movements that can further streamline the overall
efficiency of an X-ray room in moving patients through as expeditiously as possible. This option
is generally only cost-effective for facilities with rather high patient volume.

Examples: Fuji Velocity, GE XR656 (pictured right), GE Definium 8000, Siemens Ysio

Average Price Range: $95,000 - $150,000 Used, $160,000 - $300,000 New.

Radiation dose of digital x ray

Patients are exposed to a significant radiation dose during digital radiography X-ray. In addition,
these investigations are subjected to a repetition during patient management more than one time.
Due to this irradiation, the sensitive organs (eye lens, thyroid and parathyroid glands) are
exposed to a relative high dose which imposes a radiation risks to the patient.

Do not provide much information like MRI &CT scan.

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 CT& MRI rotate during diagnosis to take any anatomical information from the patient’s
body. It provides almost all anatomical information on the patients. But x ray unable to
provide information as match as CT&MRI.

Non familiarity of radiologists to the working principle of the machine.

Since x ray having complex it is difficult to be familiar with the radiologist easily. hence
trainnings must be given to him/her before starting to do anything. This is for the well being
of both the radiologist and the machine.

What we expect from biomedical engineers over the limitations of digital x ray
 Biomedical engineers expected to give training for all radiologists before they start to do
anything.
 Biomedical engineers must take any of care during the room preparation to protect the
exposure of people who are outside of the room to x ray.
 Biomedical engineers also expected to make some modifications on limitations of digital
x ray based on biomedical principles.
 In developed countries Biomedical engineers also expected to design the digital x ray in
order to increase the spatial resolution reduce the cost reduce the dose.

Error occurring in digital radiography

Radiographic errors may be due to technical errors [errors related to the technique of taking the
radiograph] or processing errors [related to all aspects of processing]

A, technical errors

The classic technical errors that occur with film screen radiography still occur when using digital
x-ray, so appropriate radiographic techniques must be used. Malpositioning, patient motion,
incorrect patient identification, and double exposures can all still occur. Technique Errors a
common receptor placement error is inadequate coverage of the area to be examined radio
graphically. Rigid digital receptors cannot be bent but as previously indicated phosphor plate
receptors can be creased, bent, scratched or folded. These alterations result in permanent damage
of the plate and produce artifacts on the current and any subsequent image.

Beam Centering Errors: The central ray should be aligned over the center of the receptor with
the x-ray beam directed perpendicular to the receptor. When this alignment is not observed, a
cone-cut occurs. Cone-cuts appear as a clear zone on traditional radiographs after processing,
due to the lack of x-ray exposure in the area of the cut. When using digital imaging, the cone-cut
appears as an opaque or white area. The shape of the cone-cut depends on the type of collimator
used when exposing the receptor.

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Round Cone Cut: if a round collimator is used, a curved cone-cut will appear. Square cone-cuts
occur when using a rectangular collimator. To correct a cone-cut error, the beam should be re-
centered toward the area of non-exposure. Improper assembly of receptor holding devices can
also cause cone-cuts. When assembling these devices, make certain that the entire receptor can
be seen while looking through the indicator ring.

Exposure Errors Time Setting

Incorrect exposure can be caused by many factors; the most common being improper exposure
factor settings. Improper time selection is the most likely error, because most intraoral x-ray
units have fixed or unchangeable milliamper (mA) and kilo voltage (kVp) settings. Time and
milliamperage control density or the overall darkness of an image while kilovoltage controls
contrast or the differences in darkness. The exposure time settings should be based on

o The receptor speed,

o The area being exposed, and
o Patient size and stature.

Every treatment room should have an exposure factor chart to guide the operator in selecting the
appropriate kVp, mA and time settings. Refer to the recommended manufacturer settings for
specific intraoral views or projections. Generally speaking, the recommended time setting for
each area is based on the size of an average adult patient. Therefore, time adjustments are
necessary when the patient size deviates from the average adult.

Improper exposure time settings can also result from an inaccurate evaluation of patient size and
stature. The operator should use longer times for larger-than-average patients and shorter times
for smaller-than-average patients. Usually one step up for large patients and one step down for
small patients will be adequate adjustment for each examination. Failing to adjust exposure time
will result in images that are either too light or too dark. Generally speaking, child exposure time
settings are lower than adult exposure time settings because of the child’s smaller size.

Under/Over Exposure

Under exposed receptors result in images that are too light or low in density. Light images can
also be caused by an increase in the source-object distance, or not placing the tube head close
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enough to the patient's face during exposure. Exposure times are prescribed on the assumption
that the tube head is no more than 2 centimeters away from the face of the patient. Receptors can
be under exposed if the exposure switch is not activated for the indicated or correct length of
time. In other words, the clinician let go of the exposure button too soon. Over exposure results
in a high-density or dark image. The causes include improper exposure factor settings or
improper assessment of patient size and stature.

When using digital image receptors, the density can be adjusted by specific enhancement
features of the computer software program. However, images that are too light or low in density
make it difficult to visualize the differences in structures and typically cannot be improved by
software adjustments. Digital images that are dark or high in density can usually be solved by
software adjustments in density unless the image appears totally black. This adjustment in
density should be accomplished prior to printing or archiving the image. Extreme under or
overexposure by necessity will result in retakes, thus exposing the patient to unnecessary
radiation.

Double Exposure: Double exposure results when the receptor is exposed twice and two images
appear superimposed onto each other. This error results in two errors; one receptor that was
double-exposed and another that was not exposed. It is extremely important to avoid this error
because it exposes the patient to radiation twice. To avoid this error, maintain an organized work
space in which exposed receptors are placed in one area or turned over to separate from
unexposed receptors.

Double exposure of rigid digital receptors is not possible but phosphor plate receptors can be
double-exposed just like film.

Another technical error that occurs occasionally is when the receptor yields no image. This error
can be caused by mechanical problems such as electrical failure, faulty generator, timer
inaccuracy or faulty exposure switch.

B.Software errors:

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Image processing involves mathematical manipulation of the image to minimize the overall
range of displayed pixel values, while maintaining high contrast. In its simplest form this
involves a process called unsharp masking. But due to aging the sensitivity of detectors and the
performance of digital x ray machine decrease results in blurred images.

Figure 12 Error by sofeware

White shade of vertical line Image due software error can be corrected by reinstalling the driver
software.

possible ways to minimize errors

Errors due to technique reduced by understanding how digital x ray is working like time setting,
dose exposure, kvp, mAs and distance of source and patient. Manage patient motion, table
movement. The exposure time settings should be based on

 The receptor speed,

 The area being exposed, and
 Patient size and stature.

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 Errors due to software minimize by proper maintenance of the machine and replace the
detector if failed.

Clinical applications of digital radiography

The primary clinical application of digital x-ray is diagnostic purpose by imaging the internal
body (structures) of the patient.

So it is responsible for detection of:

 bone fracture
 TB (all TB types related with bone)
 kidney stone
 Tumors (Cancers)
 Obstruction, etc
The secondary clinical application of digital x-ray is for therapeutic. It is responsible for
treatment of tumors or cancers

Comparison between digital and analog x ray

Digital x-ray is:

I. Digital instead of analog

Formerly, a light-sensitive film was exposed to X-rays and then developed. The digital X-ray is
the modern development of the conventional X-ray, using a digital-detector system instead of
traditional photographic film.

During the examination, X-rays are directed specifically at the particular body region in
question. Other body parts are not directly exposed to radiation. The X-rays penetrate the
examined body and are attenuated differently by the various internal structures, such as organs
and bones.
II. Less radiation

A digital-detector system on the opposite side captures the incoming X-rays, varying in strength,
and converts the signals into an image on the computer. This system is much more sensitive than
conventional X-ray systems. Therefore, a significant reduction in the radiation dose is possible.
Less radiation can be used to produce an image of similar contrast to conventional x-ray.

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III. No elaborate film developing is needed any more
Since there is no need for film development with digital x-ray, the images are ready for review
immediately after the examination. Therefore, the chemical equipment previously needed for
film development is no longer required.

 Digital x-rays can be viewed almost instantly, whereas film-based (convectional) x-

rays require 5-10 minutes for photo development. This saves you time in the waiting
room.
 Convectional x-rays capture images on film and once exposed cannot be
modified. Whereas digital x-rays capture images on digital image capture devices and
able to modified.
 Instead of X-ray film, digital radiography uses a digital image capture device. The gives
advantages of immediate image preview and availability; elimination of costly film
processing steps; a wider dynamic range, which makes it more forgiving for over- and
under-exposure; as well as the ability to apply special image processing techniques that
enhance overall display of the image.
 Digital X-ray is a form of X-ray imaging, where digital X-ray sensors are used instead of
tradition photographic film. Its advantages include time efficiency through bypassing
chemical processing and the ability to digitally transfer and enhance images. Also, the
radiation produced is less as compared to conventional radiography.
 Conventional x-ray is more tiresome than digital x-ray for radiologist.

Generally, digital x-ray has many advantages over conventional x-ray

 Elimination of darkroom
 No chemical processing waste
 Elimination of radiography film
 Instant viewing of image
 Less radiation dose to the patient
 Image can be send via email
 Reduce repeatability for clearness of image
 Save time

Due to these advantages, we can conclude that digital x-ray is more preferable than
conventional x-ray.

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References

I. An Introduction to the Principles of Medical Imaging (Revised Edition)

II. Digital X-Ray Machine and Camera System. (2009). Retrieved June 20, 2009,
Web site:
http://www.vantis.com/solutions/marketsolutions/medical/digitalxraymachineca
meras.cfm
III. Sprawls, P. (n.d.) Physical Principles of Medical Imaging Online. Retrieved June
5, 2009,
Web site: www.sprawls.org/resources

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