Introduction

• What is poverty
• Various form of poverty
• Urban vs rural poverty and statistics
Popularity dynamics india
i. Gdp consumption over time
ii. Livelihood and employment
iii. Poverty estimate
iv. Literacy levels
v. Net attendance
• Effects of poverty on
children
women
education
socity
economy
• Causes of poverty
• Measures to remove poverty
• Objectives of reduction in poverty
• Anti-poverty measures
• Environmental issue
• 3 case studies
. "Addressing Poverty in Rural India: A Case Study of the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)”

The Impact of COVID-19 on Poverty Estimates in India: A Study Across

Caste, Class and Religion

Gender Dimensions of Poverty and Food Security: A Case Study of

Palamu District of Jharkhand
WHAT IS POVERTY:
Poverty is a complex social and economic condition characterized by a lack of
resources or means to meet basic human needs, such as food, shelter, clothing,
healthcare, and education. It encompasses not only the absence of money but also
limited access to opportunities and a lower quality of life.

There are various definitions and measures of poverty, but they often fall into two
main categories:

• Absolute Poverty: This is defined by a fixed threshold, usually calculated

based on the cost of basic necessities for survival, like food and shelter. The
World Bank's international poverty line is an example, where people earning
less than $2.15 per day (as of 2022) are considered to be living in extreme
poverty.
• Relative Poverty: This is defined in relation to the average income or living
standards of a particular society. Individuals or families are considered poor if
they fall significantly below the average standard of living in their community
or country

Various form of poverty:

Poverty can be understood in various contexts, with each reflecting different aspects
of deprivation. When discussing economy, social, educational, and healthcare
poverty, each category addresses unique challenges. Let's examine them in detail:

Economic Poverty

Economic poverty refers to the lack of financial resources or income needed to meet
basic human needs such as food, shelter, and clothing. This form of poverty is often
quantified by income levels or economic indicators. It manifests in several ways:

• Income Deficiency: Insufficient wages or lack of employment leads to an

inability to meet basic expenses.
• Asset Scarcity: Little or no savings, property, or investments to buffer against
financial shocks.
• Debt Burden: Excessive debts that consume a significant portion of income,
leaving little for other necessities.

Economic poverty can have ripple effects, impacting access to other resources like
education, healthcare, and social networks.

Social Poverty
Social poverty involves limited or weak social ties and networks, leading to social
isolation and marginalization. This form of poverty is characterized by:

• Limited Support Systems: A lack of strong community ties, friends, or family

networks to provide emotional and material support.
• Social Exclusion: Discrimination or stigmatization that prevents full
participation in society.
• Reduced Civic Engagement: A low level of involvement in community
activities or local governance.

Social poverty can contribute to feelings of loneliness, disconnection, and decreased

opportunities for social mobility.

Educational Poverty

Educational poverty reflects a lack of access to quality education and learning

opportunities. It can manifest in several ways:

• Limited Schooling: Inadequate access to schools, resulting in lower literacy

and numeracy rates.
• Poor Educational Quality: Schools with insufficient resources, poorly trained
teachers, or outdated materials.
• Restricted Higher Education: Barriers to accessing universities or vocational
training, limiting career prospects.

Educational poverty perpetuates cycles of deprivation, as education is a key factor in

achieving economic and social mobility.

Healthcare Poverty

Healthcare poverty involves limited access to quality healthcare services and

resources. It includes:

• Inadequate Health Services: Lack of medical facilities or personnel in a

region.
• High Medical Costs: Healthcare expenses that are unaffordable for many
people, leading to neglect of health needs.
• Poor Health Outcomes: Higher rates of illness, chronic conditions, and lower
life expectancy due to inadequate healthcare.

Healthcare poverty can lead to a lower quality of life and hinder one's ability to work
and participate fully in society.
URBAN VS RURAL: Poverty ratio 32.75% in rural
areas against 8.81% in urban: NITI report
“India lives in villages” were the golden words of Mahatma Gandhi many decades
ago. Ironically after almost 50 years the data does not seem to disagree. Today a
majority of the Indian population still live in the villages. Though there is substantial
migration from rural to urban areas in India, still almost 68% of India continues
to live in rural areas.

The socio-economic census data (2011) released very recently said that almost 73% of
the households were in rural areas. On the contrary, India’s vision today is highly
urban centric. Cities are tipped to be the catalysts of growth in the future. One fears
the decay of villages and therefore there is a need to visit the existing ground
realities. This piece looks at various indicators of socio-economic progress in India
from the rural-urban perspective.
The GDP Composition over time
It is noted that the agriculture and allied services contribution to the GDP of the
nation has reduced considerably from 51.88% in 1950 to 13.94% in 2013. The World
Bank data on value added by agriculture (% of GDP) data does not seem to disagree.
From a 42.56 in 1960 it has dropped to a meager 16.95 in 2014. Given that almost
70% of the population lives in rural areas and about 50% of the overall labour force
is still dependant on agriculture, this situation is definitely not sustainable.
Rural Livelihood & Employment
A deeper look at the Socio-Economic Census (2011) data regarding rural livelihood
and employment is scary. The chart below summarises some of the major findings
of the SECC 2011. Almost three fourths of the rural households live with a monthly
income of less than Rs 5000. More than half the rural households do not own land
and more than half of them are casual labour.

Poverty Estimates
The chart below summarises the poverty situation in India. Though poverty has
been reducing over time, the rate of poverty reduction in urban areas has been
higher than rural areas. Also today, nearly 26% of rural India is poor, compared to a
meagre 13.7% in urban areas. The Rangarajan Committee estimates are also
indicative of the fact that rural poverty is higher than urban and stands at
approximately 31% in 2011-12.
Literacy Levels
A look at the literacy levels in India over last 3 decades from the same rural urban
lens gives us more or less similar numbers. Rural literacy rate is much lower than
the urban literacy rate. The point to be noted is the gender disparity in this area,
where the urban female literacy rate is almost higher by 20% than the rural female.

Literacy Rate of SCs & STs

Again here we can notice the same trend wherein the rural SC/STs lag behind their
urban counterparts. The urban literacy rate of ST’s seems to growing at a decreasing
rate in the last decade of the data, which can be attributed to the lower number of
ST’s living in urban pockets.
Net Attendance – Rural Vs Urban
The chart below represents the net attendance rates of rural and urban India in 2006.
The net attendance provides a deeper insight into the education dynamics of India.
The rural again falls behind the urban centres here and it is to be noted that the
rate of fall of net attendance from primary to secondary is much steeper in the rural
areas. The widely cited reasons for the same are lack of familial commitment,
migration, climate induced disasters, famine and poverty.
Health Indicators – The same story continues
Health is said to be the wealth of a society. Good health and adequate nutrition are
the best indicators of the overall well-being of population and human resources
development. They also form an important component of human capability. The
following charts depict the rural urban health divide.

Rural India lags behind Urban India in all the indicators; Infant Mortality
Rate, Percentage of Anemic Population, Various Health Indicators and Access to
Basic Services (as of 2006).
Effects of poverty (2-3 point each): Effects of Poverty on Children
Poverty has significant and often long-lasting effects on children, shaping their health, education,
and overall well-being. Here are some key impacts:

• Nutritional Deficiencies: Children in poverty may suffer from malnutrition due to a lack
of access to sufficient or healthy food. This can lead to stunted growth, developmental
delays, and weakened immune systems.
• Limited Educational Opportunities: Poverty often means reduced access to quality
education. Children may attend under-resourced schools or face barriers to educational
advancement, affecting their future opportunities.
• Increased Stress and Trauma: Children in poverty may experience higher levels of stress
due to unstable living conditions, domestic violence, or parental unemployment. This can
impact their mental health and social development.
 • Reduced Access to Healthcare: A lack of healthcare access can lead to untreated
illnesses and chronic conditions, affecting children's physical and mental development.
• Higher Rates of Child Labor: In some regions, poverty forces children to work to
support their families, affecting their education and overall well-being.

Effects of Poverty on Women

Women often face unique challenges in poverty, resulting from both economic and gender-
based disparities. Here are some effects of poverty on women:

• Economic Discrimination: Women in poverty may experience unequal pay, limited job
opportunities, and discrimination in the workplace, exacerbating their economic
challenges.
• Limited Access to Education: In many parts of the world, girls in poverty have less
access to education, affecting their future opportunities and perpetuating cycles of
poverty.
• Increased Vulnerability to Violence: Women in poverty are often more vulnerable to
domestic violence and exploitation due to limited resources and support systems.
• Health Risks: Poverty can lead to reduced access to healthcare, affecting women's
reproductive health and overall well-being. This can have long-term consequences for
their health and that of their children.
• Reduced Social and Political Participation: Poverty can limit women's ability to
participate in social and political activities, reducing their influence and voice in society.

Effects of Poverty on Education

Poverty has a direct impact on education, affecting both access to and quality of education. Here
are some ways it manifests:

• Limited School Resources: Schools in impoverished areas often lack basic resources,
including textbooks, technology, and qualified teachers, affecting educational outcomes.
• High Dropout Rates: Poverty can lead to higher dropout rates, as students may need to
work to support their families or face other barriers to continuing education.
• Reduced Access to Higher Education: Students in poverty may face financial barriers to
attending college or vocational training, limiting their career opportunities.
• Educational Disparities: Poverty can create educational disparities based on geography,
race, or gender, perpetuating inequality.

Effects of Poverty on the Economy

Poverty also has broader economic impacts, influencing the overall health of a country's
economy. Here are some key effects:

• Reduced Economic Growth: High levels of poverty can lead to reduced economic
growth, as a significant portion of the population may lack the resources to invest, spend,
or participate fully in the economy.
• Increased Healthcare Costs: Poverty-related health issues can drive up healthcare costs,
straining public resources and reducing productivity.
 • Higher Crime Rates: Poverty can be associated with higher crime rates, leading to
increased costs for law enforcement and a less stable business environment.
• Limited Workforce Participation: Poverty can reduce workforce participation due to
health issues, limited education, or other barriers, impacting productivity and innovation.
• Social Instability: High levels of poverty can contribute to social unrest and political
instability, affecting economic confidence and investment.

Overall, the effects of poverty on children, women, education, and the economy are
interconnected and can create cycles of deprivation that are challenging to break. Addressing
these effects requires comprehensive policies and programs that focus on social welfare,
education, healthcare, gender equality, and economic opportunity.

CAUSES OF POVERTY: While the causes of poverty may seem as multi-

faceted as a diamond, they can be grouped into two primary categories—
culture and believing the lie of worthlessness.

The Cultural Cause of Poverty

Cultures have internal and external elements that contribute to the

existence of poverty. Some of these conditions are tangible and external,
like:

• Lack of shelter
• Limited access to clean water resources
• Food insecurity
• Physical disabilities
• Lack of access to health care
• Unemployment
• Absence of social services
• Gender discrimination
• Poor infrastructure
• Government corruption
• Environmental circumstances such as natural disasters, droughts, limited
resources or depletion of natural resources

Other elements are intangible and internal—knowledge, aspiration,

diligence, confidence, leadership styles, participatory governance, social
capital, values, and peace, to name a few.

List of Anti Poverty Programmes

Important Anti Poverty Programmes are as follows:
1. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA):
It provides 100 days of paid employment to a rural home whose adult
members agree to conduct unskilled manual labor in a fiscal year. Women
are to be given one-third of the planned employment. The system was
implemented in 200 districts at first. The system is to be expanded to 600
districts. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of 2005 (later
renamed the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act or MNREGA) is Indian labor legislation and social security program
that attempts to provide the “right to work.” This legislation was approved
on August 23, 2005, during Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh’s UPA
government, with Dr. Raghuvansh Prasad Singh as Minister of Rural
Development, who submitted the bill before parliament.
Another goal of MNREGA is to generate long-lasting assets (such as
roads, canals, ponds, and wells). Employment must be available within 5
kilometers of an applicant’s home, and minimum wage must be paid.
Applicants are eligible for unemployment benefits if work is not found
within 15 days of applying. That is, if the government fails to produce
work, it is required to offer some unemployment benefits to those
individuals. As a result, employment under MNREGA is a legal right.
2. Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana (PMRY):
On August 15, 1993, the Prime Minister proposed a program to give self-
employment possibilities to one million educated jobless youngsters
throughout the country. On October 2, 1993, the Scheme was formally
inaugurated.
The PMRY was supposed to create employment for over a million people
by establishing 7 lakh micro firms by educated jobless youth. It is
concerned with the establishment of self-employment ventures through
industry, service, and business routes. The program also aspires to include
reputable non-governmental organizations in the execution of the PMRY
initiative, particularly in the selection, training, and creation of project
profiles. The program’s principal goal is to provide self-employment
options for educated jobless youngsters in rural and small-town regions.
It helps with a project with a total cost of ???? lakh if it is in the business
sector or ???? lakh if it is in the service or industry sector.
3. Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP):
The Rural Employment Generation Program is primarily concerned with
creating self-employment options in rural towns and villages. It is an
initiative introduced by the Indian government. On April 1, 1995, the Khadi
& Village Industries Commission (KVIC) created and inaugurated the Rural
Employment Generation Programme (REGP) initiative. They created work
prospects for around two million job seekers in the country’s rural areas
through the KVI sector. Some of the features are:
 • Creation and extension of long-term, stable job possibilities in
rural and urban locations around the country.
• Making provision for the establishment and growth of micro-
enterprises in order to create jobs.
• Facilitating the participation of financial institutions allows for a
smooth and simple flow of credit to the micro sector.
• To shift the demand for raw resources generated by small-scale
businesses to large-scale industries.
4. Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY):
This Scheme was launched following a review and restructuring of the
former Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) and related
schemes such as Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM),
Million Wells Scheme (MWS), Development of Women and Children in
Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans
(SITRA), and Ganga Kalyan Yojana.
SGSY was established on April 1, 1999, and it is the only self-employment
programme now in operation. The SGSY’s goal is to lift aided Swarozgaris
out of poverty by providing them with income-generating assets through
bank financing and government subsidies. The scheme is being
implemented with a 75:25 cost split between the Centre and the States.
5. Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yozana (PMGY):
This yojana started in the year 2000. It provides states with increased
central aid for fundamental services like primary health care, primary
education, rural housing, rural drinking water, and rural electricity. PMGY
was introduced in all States and Union Territories (UTs) in 2000-2001
with the goal of achieving sustainable human development at the village
level.
The PMGY envisions allocating Additional Central Assistance (ACA) to
states and UTs for chosen basic minimum services in order to focus on
certain priority areas. From 2001 to 2002, rural electrification was offered
as an extra component. The Planning Commission oversees both the
financial and physical aspects of the programme.
6. Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY):
It was first introduced in the year 2000. It was part of a plan to help one
crore of the poorest households living below the poverty line. It was
determined as being covered by the planned public distribution system.
Each qualified family received 25kg of food grains at a heavily subsidized
rate of ???? per kg wheat and ???? per kg rice. In 2003, the initiative was
expanded further, and food grains were distributed to about 50 lakh low-
income families.
The results of the programme had both positive and negative outcomes.
Reasons for the drawbacks include lack of right targeting and
implementation; at the same time, there has been overlapping of schemes.
Also, the benefits of schemes are not fully reached to the target deserving
poor strata of society. Therefore, the major emphasis in recent years is on
proper monitoring of all the poverty alleviation programmes.
7. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):
It was launched on 15th August 1995 with the objective of secure social
security and welfare program to provide support to widows, aged
persons, disabled persons, and bereaved those families on the death of
the primary breadwinner, belonging to BPL households for the
fulfillment of the Article 41 and Article 42 of Directive Principles of State
Policy which is mentioned in Part IV of the Constitution of India. It also had
three components namely,
A. National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS): It was launched in the
year 1995 to provide pensions to the person who is destitute” having
little or no source of income or monetary support. The main aim is to
make available social safety for the eligible beneficiaries. In this, senior
citizens 60 years or above receive a monthly pension and it a non-
contribution person, wherein the beneficiary does not have to contribute
any amount to receive the pension.
B. National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS): It was launched in the year
1995 to support with a lumpsum amount to the household below the
poverty line who then becomes the head of the family after the death
of the main wage earner. It provides a lump sum amount of Rs.10,000/-
to the household and it is applicable in the age group of 18-64 years.
C. National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS): In the National Maternity
Benefit Scheme, a financial grant is provided to women belonging to
poor families for pre-natal and post-natal care. It is for women aged 19
years and above up to the first two live births. It is a cash-based maternity
assistance scheme.
8. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY):
Initially, Indira Awaas Yojana was launched as a sub-scheme of Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana in May 1985. However, since January 1, 1996; the scheme
is being implemented as an independent scheme. The basic aim of IAY is
to provide free of cost dwelling units to the poor families of SCs, STs, free-
bonded labourers, and non-SC/STs in rural areas living Below Poverty
Line. The cost-sharing basis of the funding of this scheme is 75:25 and is
between the centre and the states. Three percent of these funds are
reserved for disabled persons living below poverty line. At present, Indira
Awaas Yojana is one of the most popular schemes of rural development.
With this scheme, the beneficiaries are now able to participate and involve
themselves in the construction of their houses. They can do so as per their
choice of technology, design, and requirement.

Measures to remove poverty:

1. Acceleration of Economic Growth:
The first measure to remove poverty is accelerating the economic growth rate.
Economic condition of people of the country can automatically improve through
fast economic growth which can further reduce poverty. Besides, a company with
fast economic growth can produce a large amount of goods and services which
provides huge employment opportunities to people and help them generate higher
incomes.
2. Agricultural Development:
Since 1951, the economic planning of the country includes agricultural
development as it is very important. As we know that the major proportion of
India’s population depends upon agriculture, and poverty in rural areas can be
removed only through agricultural development. Therefore, it is essential to give
more emphasis on agricultural development and enhance agricultural productivity
and production. In order to do so, the government of India should take various
steps to provide irrigation facilities, HYV seeds, fertilisers, financial assistance to
small and poor farmers, etc.
3. Reducing Inequalities of Income:
Accelerating economic growth is important for a country but is not a sufficient
condition for eradicating poverty. It is because if the economic growth rate
increases with an increase in income inequality, then only the rich section of
society will be able to get the benefit of economic development and the poor
people will increase. Therefore, in order to give benefits to poor people, it is
essential to reduce income inequalities.
Poverty in India has a significant impact on the environment, with various issues
emerging from the intersection of economic deprivation and environmental
sustainability. Here are some of the key environmental issues arising due to poverty
in India:
Deforestation and Land Degradation

In many rural areas, poverty drives deforestation and land degradation. People living
in poverty rely on forests for fuelwood, fodder, and agricultural land. This leads to
over-extraction of resources, deforestation, and soil erosion. The loss of forest cover
impacts biodiversity, contributes to climate change, and disrupts ecosystems.

Water Pollution and Scarcity

Poverty often results in inadequate access to clean water and sanitation. As a result,
many people rely on untreated water sources for drinking, cooking, and cleaning,
leading to water pollution and the spread of waterborne diseases. Improper
sanitation practices, such as open defecation, further contaminate water sources,
impacting both human health and aquatic ecosystems.

Air Pollution

Poverty contributes to air pollution in several ways. In urban areas, people in poverty
often rely on low-cost, high-pollution fuels like kerosene or coal for cooking and
heating, leading to indoor air pollution. In rural areas, traditional biomass burning is
common, which contributes to air pollution and health issues. Additionally,
unregulated industrial activities in poorer areas can emit pollutants into the air,
affecting air quality and public health.

Case study

Gender Dimensions of Poverty and

Food Security: A Case Study of
Palamu District of Jharkhand
Abstract
A wide regional and inter-district disparity exists in the state
of Jharkhand. The rankings of its districts on indicators of
development reveal that those located in the north-western
parts of Jharkhand including Palamu and its north-eastern
parts are less developed compared to the ones falling in the
central and western parts of the state (Planning-cum-
Finance Department, 2017, Jharkhand Economic Survey 2016–
17, Ranchi: Government of Jharkhand). Jharkhand is one of
the most poverty-stricken states of India with a sharp
contrast between rural and urban poverty. Studies often
show that the process of liberalisation and economic
reforms in India has a mixed impact on a mineral rich state
like Jharkhand. The well-known phenomenon of ‘resource
curse’ is particularly observed in the case of Jharkhand
where manufacturing sector growth is increasing but the
state is lagging behind in terms of human development
indicators. The political instability and unplanned
exploitation of its mineral wealth without benefiting the
tribal population clearly indicate that the state suffers from
the deficit of governance and development. It is in this
context that this article analyses the patterns of poverty and
food security among tribals and other social groups in seven
villages of Manatu block under Palamu district of Jharkhand
from a gender perspective. The article also explores the
factors influencing the dynamics of household food security
in Palamu district through empirical findings. It examines
how the poor rural/tribal communities cope with food
insecurity through case studies. Finally, the article critically
analyses the implementation of social policies in addressing
food security problem of Jharkhand.

Gender Dimensions of Poverty and Food Security: A Case Study of

Palamu District of Jharkhand

Introduction
The interplay between gender, poverty, and food security is a critical area of study, particularly in
regions like Palamu district of Jharkhand, India. Palamu, characterized by its socio-economic
challenges and agrarian distress, offers a unique perspective on how gender disparities influence
poverty and food security. This case study delves into the gender-specific aspects of these issues,
aiming to understand the unique challenges faced by women and how they impact the broader
community's well-being.

Overview of Palamu District and Historical background

Palamu district, located in the state of Jharkhand, is predominantly rural with a significant portion
of the population dependent on agriculture. The district suffers from high levels of poverty,
inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to essential services such as healthcare and
education. These challenges are exacerbated by frequent droughts and erratic rainfall, which
severely affect agricultural productivity and food security.
The early history of Palamu is not authentic but there are legends about it. It is certain that
Kharwars, Oraons and Cheros are the three aboriginal tribes practically ruled over the tract
(Palamu District Disaster Management Plan, 2016–2017, p. 7). The administrative
headquarters of Palamu is Daltonganj, which has taken its name after Colonel Dalton,
commissioner of Chotanagpur in 1861. The old Palamu district is divided into three
districts—Palamu, Garhwa and Latehar. The district is bounded in north by the river Sone
which separates it from the districts of Rohtas, and by the district of Aurangabad (Bihar). In
the east, it is bounded by the district of Chatra, in the south by the district of Latehar, and in
the west by the district of Garhwa, and by Chhattisgarh state.
Table 1. Occupational Classification: Palamu District
Workers Male Female
Total Workers 349,538 183,468
Main Workers 245,317 55,179
Marginal Workers 104,221 128,289
Cultivators 127,082 54,523
Agricultural Workers
Source: Census 2011 data as cited in Department of Disaster Management
(2016–2017, p. 11).
Methodology
This study was conducted in Manatu block in the year 2012. Primary data have been
collected through an interview schedule and village information schedule followed by
focused group discussion (FGD). The interview schedule was semi-structured and it was
administered at the household level. It throws light on various aspects of the household
like demographic and occupational profile and gathers information about housing and
assets, land ownership, wage employment, sources of income, indebtedness,
household expenditure, food consumption status, functioning of public distribution
system (PDS), integrated child development services (ICDS) and other government
schemes, gender issues related to food consumption and distribution within the
household. Further, it enquires into the poverty-related conflicts and perception of
villagers on poverty in the study area over the past 10 years. The village information
schedule was designed with an objective to collect information about the social,
historical, developmental and infrastructure background of each village.
A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) provides a structured
way to examine the factors impacting gender dimensions of poverty and food security in
Palamu District, Jharkhand. Here’s a detailed SWOT analysis:

Strengths(Any 2)

1. Agricultural Potential:
o The region has fertile soil and a suitable climate for various crops, which can support
food security if properly utilized.
o Traditional knowledge among women regarding local crop cultivation and food
preservation techniques.
2. Community Support Networks:
o Strong community bonds can facilitate collective farming and shared resources,
enhancing food security.
o Women’s self-help groups (SHGs) play a crucial role in economic activities and
support networks.
3. Government Programs:
o Presence of government schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS),
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), and other
welfare programs aimed at reducing poverty and improving food security.
4. Cultural Knowledge:
o Traditional dietary practices that emphasize nutritional diversity, which can be
leveraged to improve food security.

Weaknesses(Any 2)

1. Gender Inequality:
o Persistent gender disparities in education, health, and economic opportunities,
limiting women’s ability to contribute effectively to household food security and
income.
o Unequal land ownership and lack of access to resources for women.
2. Economic Vulnerability:
o High levels of poverty with limited income sources, particularly for women.
o Seasonal migration of men for work, leaving women with increased burdens and
limited support.
3. Infrastructure Deficiencies:
o Inadequate infrastructure such as roads, markets, storage facilities, and healthcare,
affecting overall food security and poverty alleviation efforts.
o Poor access to clean water and sanitation, disproportionately affecting women and
children.
4. Limited Education and Training:
o Low literacy rates and lack of vocational training, especially among women, reducing
their ability to secure better-paying jobs and improve agricultural productivity.

Opportunities(Any 2)

1. Empowerment Programs:
o Initiatives aimed at empowering women through education, vocational training, and
entrepreneurship can significantly improve household income and food security.
 o Expanding microfinance and SHGs to include more women, offering financial stability
and business opportunities.
2. Agricultural Innovation:
o Introduction of modern farming techniques, high-yield crops, and better irrigation
practices can increase productivity and food availability.
o Promotion of organic farming and local food systems can open new markets and
improve sustainability.
3. Policy Support:
o Leveraging government policies focused on gender equality, rural development, and
food security can bring targeted support to vulnerable groups.
o Advocacy for women’s land rights and improved access to agricultural inputs and
services.
4. Market Access:
o Development of local and regional markets to provide better opportunities for
women to sell their produce and products.
o Enhancing digital literacy to enable women to access information and markets
through mobile technology.

Threats(Any 2)

1. Climate Change:
o Increasing frequency of droughts, floods, and other climate-related events
threatening agricultural productivity and food security.
o Degradation of natural resources like soil and water, impacting long-term
sustainability.
2. Socio-economic Barriers:
o Deep-rooted patriarchal norms and practices that restrict women’s participation in
economic and social activities.
o High levels of illiteracy and lack of awareness about rights and opportunities.
3. Political Instability:
o Changes in political leadership or policies that may deprioritize women’s issues and
rural development.
o Corruption and inefficiencies in the implementation of welfare schemes.
4. Health Challenges:
o High prevalence of malnutrition, particularly among women and children,
undermining productivity and overall well-being.
o Lack of access to quality healthcare services, exacerbating the impact of poverty and
food insecurity.

Addressing the gender dimensions of poverty and food security in Palamu District requires a
multifaceted approach, leveraging strengths and opportunities while mitigating weaknesses
and threats through targeted policies, community engagement, and sustainable development
practices.

Case Studies
This section presents the select case studies of the respondents (tribal and female-
headed households) and their living condition in Manatu block of Palamu.
In Kusmatand village (Manatu block), there is no food available for the whole year, due
to which many households fall in the health trap. Presented in the following are few
cases of acute deprivation which also reflect a deep sense of helplessness vis-à-vis
access, availability and affordability of food.

Case : Basanti Kunwar, a 30-year-old widow from Kharwar tribe, lives in Kusmatand Tola.
She stays with her old father. Her father Rajkumar Singh reported that he had spent
around ₹30,000 for the treatment of his son-in-law, but he was not able to recover from
this chronic disease. He regretted that his daughter was in the early 30s who was
neither educated nor able to earn enough to meet their basic needs. She had two sons,
one was of 4 years, and the other a 4-month newly-born baby, and one daughter aged
three. He and his wife got ₹800 as old-age pension. For his daughter’s treatment, he
mortgaged 1.5 acre land, and the rest was taand (barren land). This village, he said was
a Bukhmaria Tola (starving hamlet). Her father said he was too old and not able to work.
He said his situation was the worst because he could not help his daughter in this
situation; therefore, the daughter had to work to fulfil children’s basic needs. This was
to say that his family was in health-trapped poverty. This case reveals that female-
headed households are more vulnerable to food insecurity than male-headed
households.

It is a case of multiple vulnerabilities, as she is not only a poor tribal woman but also a
widow. Also her father is an old person, therefore with family support. And despite such
acute vulnerability, the state-run food security mechanism is not reaching her.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Poverty Estimates in India: A

Study Across Caste, Class and Religion
Abstract
The impact of COVID-19 on poverty estimates is humongous. The economic tumult
caused by the pandemic over the past two years has the potential to double the nation’s
poverty, erasing the decade-long gains from the fight against poverty and inequality.
Our calculations show that around 150–199 million additional people will fall under
poverty in 2021–2022; a majority of which are from rural areas, owing to the immiserate
nature of the rural economy. Further disaggregation reveals that the SC/ST, casual
labour and the self-employed are the most impacted groups. Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Odisha are the most affected states facing poverty
ranging from 50% to 80% in the rural area and 40% to 70% in the urban area. Our
analysis also identifies the rippling effect of poverty on the inter-group disparities in
India.

Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on global economies, with
developing countries like India experiencing significant disruptions. The pandemic
exacerbated existing inequalities and led to an increase in poverty across various
socio-economic groups. This case study examines how COVID-19 affected poverty
estimates in India, focusing on disparities across caste, class, and religion.

Objectives
1. Assess the overall impact of COVID-19 on poverty in India.
2. Analyze how the pandemic affected different socio-economic groups,
particularly across caste, class, and religion.
3. Identify the underlying factors contributing to the disparities in poverty
impacts.
4. Provide policy recommendations to address the increased inequalities.
Impact of COVID-19 on Poverty Estimates in India
Table 1 presents our estimates of headcount ratios and an absolute number of poor
based on the two assumed scenarios of contraction in per capita consumption
separately for rural and urban areas. The table shows that the total number of people
living below the poverty line would expand by 150 to 199 million, reaching to an
absolute number of 508 to 556 million due to the COVID-19 crises. Our estimates
suggest that a 5% and a 10% level of contraction in consumption in the rural area would
lead to an additional influx of 115 and 152 (population in million) respectively into
poverty. This means a 15.38 and 20.35% increase in poverty incidence at the 5 and 10%
consumption shock respectively. In pre-COVID times, around 35% (265 million people)
of the rural population were poor. However, this number is expected to rise to roughly
381 to 418 million for the FY2021–2022. For Urban India, under the same levels of
contractions, there is an expectant 36 to 47 million additional people to fall under
poverty, with the total headcount ratio reaching 39.08% to 42.4%. The contractions
would lead to an increase in urban poverty incidence by 10.96% and 14.2%. At all India
level, around 150–199 additional million people will become poor due to COVID-19
crises, while those already are poor will be pushed deeper into poverty.

Table 1. Estimates of Poverty at 5% and 10% Contraction in Consumption for Rural and

Urban India, 2020–2021.

Rural Urban Al

Pre COVID-19: 2018–2019

Headcount ratio 35.52 28.12 3

Millions 265.9 91.8 3

Forecasts taking COVID-19-induced crisis into account

Headcount 50.9–55.87 39.08–42.4 47.3

 Rural Urban Al

Millions 381–418 128–138 50

Changes relative to pre COVID-19

In headcount 15.38–20.35 10.96–14.28 14.0

In millions 115–152 36–47 15

Methodology
1. Data Collection

• Primary Data: Conduct surveys in urban and rural areas to gather data on income,
employment, education, health, and access to social services before and after the
pandemic.
• Secondary Data: Utilize data from government sources such as the National Sample
Survey Office (NSSO), Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), and reports from various
NGOs and international organizations.
• .

2. Qualitative Analysis

• Conduct focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with representatives from
various socio-economic groups to gain qualitative insights into the pandemic's
impact.

Strengths

1. Government Response:
o Quick rollout of relief packages, including free food grains under the Pradhan Mantri
Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY).
o Expansion of social protection schemes, such as direct cash transfers and increased
funding for MGNREGA.
2. Community Resilience:
o Strong informal networks and community solidarity helped mitigate some impacts of
the pandemic, particularly in rural areas.
o Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups played a critical role
in providing relief and support.

Weaknesses

1. Pre-existing Inequalities:
o Deep-rooted caste and class disparities exacerbated by the pandemic, with
marginalized communities experiencing higher rates of job loss and food insecurity.
o Discrimination and social exclusion faced by lower castes and minority religions,
limiting access to relief measures and healthcare.
 2. Healthcare System:
o Overburdened and under-resourced healthcare infrastructure, particularly in rural
and marginalized areas.
o Disparities in access to healthcare based on socio-economic status, caste, and
religion.

Opportunities

1. Policy Reforms:
o Opportunity to implement and strengthen inclusive social protection policies that
address the needs of marginalized communities.
o Reforms in labor laws and social security systems to cover informal sector workers
more effectively.
2. Health System Strengthening:
o Investment in healthcare infrastructure and services, particularly in underserved
areas, to improve resilience against future health crises.
o Expansion of telemedicine and digital health services to reach remote and
marginalized populations.

Threats

1. Worsening Inequality:
o Risk of deepening socio-economic disparities if recovery measures are not inclusive
and equitable.
o Increased stigmatization and discrimination against marginalized communities in the
wake of the pandemic.
2. Economic Instability:
o Prolonged economic slowdown leading to sustained high unemployment rates and
poverty, especially among vulnerable groups.
o Inflation and rising cost of living further straining low-income households.

This concise SWOT analysis highlights the major strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats related to the impact of COVID-19 on poverty estimates across caste, class, and
religion in India.

Conclusion
Our estimates have shown that an additional influx of 150–199 million people into
poverty due to the ongoing COVID-19 crisis at 5% to 10% of assumed contractions in per
capita consumption expenditure. The analysis further suggests that the rural–urban
divide is prominent and the impact is spread unevenly across both sectors. Projecting
the proposed contractions on the two sectors reveals that the urban sector will have a
lesser impact on the poverty estimates. This is attributed to a better socio-economic
profile of the urban population as compared to the rural population. The estimates
show that in the second scenario of a 10% contraction in GDP, nearly four-fifth of SC/ST
fall into poverty compared to half of the people from the other groups. Similar results
are estimated for the religious minorities, with Islam at the maximum potential of
fallout, followed by Hindus, Christians and others. Amongst the household type, casual
labour households in the urban sector are the most impacted group, followed by self-
employed and regular salaried. Additionally, the low-income states bear the highest
incidence of poverty, followed by the middle-income states due to the crises. The
marked income inequity in the low-income states will increase in post COVID-19
contractions. In the high-income states, the brunt of COVID-19 is seen in rural areas due
to a large number of the rural population living near the poverty line and majorly
because the area lacks employment and livelihood opportunities.

Title: "Addressing Poverty in Rural India: A Case Study of the

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)"

Introduction:

India, despite its economic growth, continues to grapple with

high levels of poverty, particularly in rural areas. This case study
focuses on the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(NREGA), a flagship social welfare program aimed at alleviating
poverty by providing employment opportunities to rural
households.

Background:

NREGA was enacted in 2005 with the objective of enhancing

livelihood security in rural areas by guaranteeing 100 days of
wage employment in a financial year to every household whose
adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. The
program is implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development
and is one of the largest social welfare programs in the world.
Case Study Methodology:

This case study employs a mixed-methods approach,

combining qualitative interviews, quantitative analysis of
government data, and field observations in select rural areas of
India.

Findings:

Economic Impact:

NREGA has provided a significant source of income for rural

households, particularly during lean agricultural seasons.

Increased household income has led to improvements in food

security, asset accumulation, and overall economic well-being.

Social Impact:

NREGA has empowered marginalized communities, including

women and lower caste groups, by providing them with access
to employment opportunities and financial independence.

The program has contributed to reducing distress migration

from rural to urban areas.

Challenges:

Delayed wage payments and administrative inefficiencies have

been major challenges, leading to grievances among
beneficiaries.
Implementation issues, such as corruption and leakages, have
hindered the program's effectiveness in some regions.

Policy Implications:

Strengthening transparency and accountability mechanisms

within the program to mitigate corruption and ensure timely
payments.

Enhancing convergence with other social welfare schemes to

address complementary needs, such as healthcare and
education.
SWOT Analysis: Addressing Poverty in Rural India - A Case Study of the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)

Strengths

1. Guaranteed Employment:
o Provides a legal guarantee of 100 days of wage employment to every rural
household, ensuring a basic level of income security.
o Helps reduce poverty by providing a steady source of income during lean
agricultural periods.
2. Infrastructure Development:
o Focus on creating durable assets such as roads, irrigation facilities, and water
conservation structures, contributing to long-term rural development.
o Enhances agricultural productivity and access to markets, benefiting the wider
rural economy.

Weaknesses

1. Implementation Challenges:
o Delays in wage payments and irregularities in job allocations undermine the
program’s effectiveness.
o Issues with the transparency and accountability of local governance, leading to
corruption and mismanagement.
2. Limited Scope:
o The scheme’s reach and effectiveness are sometimes limited by inadequate
awareness among beneficiaries.
o Insufficient emphasis on skill development and capacity building, restricting
workers to low-skilled labor.

Opportunities
 1. Skill Development:
o Integrating vocational training and skill development programs within
NREGA can enhance the employability of rural workers beyond manual labor.
o Providing additional livelihood options and empowering workers to move
towards more skilled and higher-paying jobs.
2. Digital Integration:
o Utilizing technology for better management and monitoring of the program,
ensuring timely payments and reducing corruption.
o Enhancing transparency through digital records and direct benefit transfers to
beneficiaries’ bank accounts.

Threats

1. Political Interference:
o Local political dynamics can influence the allocation of work and resources,
potentially leading to favoritism and exclusion of the most needy.
o Shifts in political priorities at the national

Conclusion:

The NREGA case study highlights both the successes and

challenges of addressing rural poverty in India through social
welfare interventions. While the program has made significant
strides in providing employment and livelihood security to
millions of rural households, there is room for improvement in
its implementation and effectiveness. By addressing these
challenges and building upon the program's successes, India
can continue its journey towards poverty alleviation and
inclusive development in rural areas.
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