Module 3

Chapter 5 : Hydrogen Energy

Introduction to Hydrogen as an Energy Source

Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe, consisting of only one
proton and one electron. Despite its abundance, it does not exist naturally as a gas on Earth; it
is always combined with other elements, such as in water (H₂O) or hydrocarbons.

Hydrogen is seen as a clean, renewable energy carrier (secondary energy source) with the
potential to become the next most preferred energy form after electricity, due to its versatility,
clean combustion, and applications in multiple industries.

Key Points

Production Methods:

1. Steam Reforming: Extracting hydrogen from hydrocarbons (e.g., natural gas) using heat.

2. Electrolysis: Splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity.

3. Solar-based Methods:

o Solar thermal electrolysis

o Solar thermochemical decomposition

o Photocatalytic water splitting

o Photovoltaic-powered electrolysis

4. Biological Methods: Using algae and bacteria under sunlight.

5. Others: Coal gasification, steam–iron reaction.

Advantages of Hydrogen:

 Clean fuel (zero carbon emissions when used)

 Can be used in fuel cells to generate electricity

 Excellent for energy storage

 Useful as a raw material in industries (e.g., ammonia synthesis, petroleum refining)

Challenges:

 Hydrogen doesn’t exist freely in nature—must be extracted

 Needs advanced technology for safe storage, transport, and use

5.1 Benefits of Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen energy o ers several advantages that make it a strong contender for future
sustainable energy systems. The three main benefits are:

1. Pollution Reduction

 Hydrogen, when used in fuel cells, combines with oxygen to generate electricity.

 The only by-products of this reaction are water and heat.

 No greenhouse gases or harmful emissions are released.

 Applications include powering vehicles, homes, and industries.

2. Local and Flexible Production

 Hydrogen can be produced locally or centrally, o ering flexibility.

 Possible sources include:

o Methane

o Gasoline

o Biomass

o Coal

o Water

 Each source has di erent environmental and technical impacts, but the local
production reduces transportation needs and enhances energy security.

3. Sustainable with Renewable Energy

 Electrolysis of water using renewable sources (solar, wind, hydro, tidal) creates a clean
hydrogen supply.

 This method is independent of fossil fuels and helps build a sustainable, non-polluting
energy cycle.

 In high-temperature fuel cells, the waste heat can also be reused for heating
(cogeneration), improving overall system e iciency.

5.2 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

Hydrogen can be produced through various methods, and the choice of technology depends on:

 Resource availability

 Required quantity & purity

 Environmental and economic considerations

Hydrogen production is broadly categorized into three major technologies:

5.2.1 Thermochemical Production Technologies
These involve using heat (thermal energy) to break down substances and release hydrogen.
Main methods include:

🔹 5.2.1.1 Steam Reforming

 Most common & cheapest method globally (≈90% of current hydrogen production).

 Reacts methane (CH₄) or methanol with steam over a catalyst to produce H₂ and CO.

 Then, a shift reaction converts CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂.

Key reactions:

 CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3H₂ (endothermic)

 CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂ (exothermic)

 Overall: CH₄ + 2H₂O → CO₂ + 4H₂

Advantages:

 High yield in large reactors

 Well-established, scalable

Limitations:

 CO₂ emissions (unless captured)

 Less e icient in small-scale setups

Future Trends:

 Adding CO₂ absorbents inside the reformer could increase H₂ output and purity,
reducing costs by 25–30%.

🔹 5.2.1.2 Partial Oxidation (POX) / Ceramic Membrane Reactor

 Involves reacting natural gas or hydrocarbons with oxygen.

 Exothermic reaction (no external heat needed):

o CH₄ + ½O₂ → CO + 2H₂

Features:

 No heater required (cost saving)

 Can be catalytic (CPOX) for better e iciency

 Uses ceramic membranes (under development) for oxygen separation and reaction

Limitations:

 Less energy-e icient than steam reforming

 Requires pure oxygen, typically from air separation units

🔹 5.2.1.3 Biomass Gasification & Pyrolysis
 Renewable method using plant-based materials or waste biomass

 Two main processes:

o Gasification: Produces a gas mix (syngas) containing hydrogen

o Pyrolysis: Produces bio-oil, which is chemically processed to obtain hydrogen

Advantages:

 Uses agricultural waste/residues

 Environmentally friendly

 Can yield valuable co-products (e.g., phenolic resins)

Limitations:

 Technology still maturing

 Needs e icient downstream processing

5.2.2 Electrolytic Production Technologies

Electrolysis splits water (H₂O) into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) using electricity.

 Works by passing electric current through water with an electrolyte (like salt or KOH) to
enhance conductivity.

 H₂ collects at the cathode (–), and O₂ at the anode (+).

 Useful when paired with renewable energy (wind, solar) for green hydrogen production.

Types of Electrolysis Technologies

1. Alkaline Electrolysis

 Uses a liquid alkaline electrolyte (NaOH or KOH).

 Electrodes are immersed in the solution.

 Reactions:

o Cathode: 4H₂O + 4e⁻ → 2H₂ + 4OH⁻

o Anode: 4OH⁻ → O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻

2. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolysis

 Uses a solid polymer membrane.

 Higher e iciency and compact.

 Reactions:

o Cathode: 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ → 2H₂

 o Anode: 2H₂O → O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻

Best commercial systems have ~70% e iciency (electricity to H₂ conversion).

Other Electrolytic Hydrogen Production Methods

3. Water Electrolysis

 Traditional method.

 Previously used widely in submarines, labs.

 Now gaining attention for automotive H₂ fueling and renewable energy storage.

4. Steam Electrolysis (High-Temperature Electrolysis)

 Uses heat + electricity → more energy-e icient.

 At ~2500°C, water splits into H₂ and O₂.

 Heat can come from solar concentrators.

 Challenge: Prevent H₂ and O₂ from recombining at high temp.

5. Photoelectrolysis

 Uses solar energy directly via photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells to split water.

 Based on multi-junction PV cells (like tandem a-Si cells).

 E iciencies:

o Theoretical: 42%

o Practical: 18–24%

o a-Si outdoor tested: 7.8%

Advantage: No separate electrolyser needed → lower cost + higher solar-to-H₂ e iciency.

6. Thermochemical Water Splitting

 Uses chemical reactions + heat (e.g., sulphur–iodine cycle).

 Suitable for nuclear reactor heat integration.

 Example:

o I₂ + SO₂ + 2H₂O → 2HI + H₂SO₄ (120°C)

o H₂SO₄ → SO₂ + H₂O + ½O₂ (830–900°C)

o 2HI → I₂ + H₂ (300–450°C)

o Overall: H₂O → H₂ + ½O₂

E iciency improves with temperature (30–60%).

7. By-product from Chlor-Alkali Industry

 H₂ is a by-product when producing:

 o Chlorine (Cl₂)

o Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)

Reactions:

 NaCl + H₂O + electricity → ½ Cl₂ + NaOH + ½ H₂

 KCl + H₂O + electricity → ½ Cl₂ + KOH + ½ H₂

8. Reversible Fuel Cells (RFCs)

 PEM fuel cells can run in reverse to produce H₂.

 Needs special design for:

o Thermal control

o Water management

o Catalyst optimization

5.2.3 Photolytic Production Technologies

Photolytic methods use solar energy directly to split water into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) —
no electricity from solar panels is needed.

Two main methods:

1. Photoelectrochemical (PEC)

2. Photobiological/Biological

5.2.3.1 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Processes

Two types of systems:

1. Soluble Metal Complexes

 Metal-based catalysts absorb sunlight → generate electric charge → splits water.

 Mimics natural photosynthesis.

2. Semiconductor Surfaces

 Use semiconducting electrodes to absorb sunlight and split water.

 These electrodes convert solar energy into chemical energy.

 Challenge: Light causes corrosion, reducing the life of the electrodes.

5.2.3.2 Biological & Photobiological Processes

1. Photosynthetic Microbes (e.g., Algae)

 Some algae and cyanobacteria can produce H₂ during photosynthesis.

 Under special conditions (like sulphur deprivation), cells switch from growth to H₂
production.
  E iciency could reach up to 24%.

2. Oxygen Sensitivity Problem

 Enzymes responsible for H₂ generation are sensitive to O₂.

 Solutions:

o Find/mutate microbes that can work in presence of O₂.

o Genetically engineer more tolerant strains.

3. Photosynthetic Bacteria

 Unlike algae, these bacteria don’t use water but convert biomass into hydrogen.

 They can use enzymes to generate H₂ from organic matter.

 Also helpful for:

o Upgrading fuel gases for hydrogen fuel cells.

o Pollution cleanup.

Extra Note

 Biological systems may o er dual benefits:

o Hydrogen production

o Environmental cleanup (bioremediation)

 Aluminium-based hydrogen production is also possible:

o Waste aluminium reacts catalytically with water.

o Produces H₂ and alumina (which can be recycled into Al again).

Final Takeaways

 Photolytic hydrogen production avoids high electricity costs of electrolysis.

 With technological advancement and partnerships, hydrogen can become a

mainstream sustainable energy source.

5.3 HYDROGEN ENERGY STORAGE

Hydrogen storage is one of the biggest technical challenges in making hydrogen a viable energy
source — especially for transport (e.g., cars must run 450+ km between refuels).

Why is storage di icult?

 Hydrogen has high energy per weight (3× gasoline)

 But low energy per volume → Needs compression or liquefaction

🔹 5.3.1 Compressed Gas & Liquid Hydrogen Tanks
Feature Compressed Gas Liquid Hydrogen

Volume Large Smaller (denser)

Energy Required Moderate (compression) High (cooling below 20.27K)

Storage Pressure ~700 bar Cryogenic conditions

Challenges Bulky tanks Heavy insulation, energy loss

🔹 5.3.2 Materials-Based Storage

Hydrogen can also be stored in solid materials via:

1. Adsorption (on surface)

 H₂ sticks to surface as molecules or atoms

 Called surface adsorption

2. Absorption (inside material)

 H₂ molecules split into atoms and enter solid lattice

 Known as intermetallic hydride storage

These methods enable low-pressure, room-temperature storage — more compact and

potentially safer.

🔹 5.3.3 Methods of Hydrogen Energy Storage

5.3.3.1 Compression
 H₂ gas compressed in tanks or underground

 Common in transport sector (up to 700 bar)

 Drawback: High energy input, mechanical wear

5.3.3.2 Liquefaction
 H₂ gas is pressurized + cooled to liquid form

 Must be stored below 20.27K

 Expensive & energy-intensive (still lower energy density than petrol)

5.3.3.3 Metal Hydrides & Advanced Materials

 Hydrogen is absorbed in special materials (like metal hydrides, nanostructured carbon,
etc.)

 Can be released later by heating

 Pros:

o Safer & compact

 o Can reuse waste heat (e.g., from fuel cells/electrolysers)

 Cons:

o Adds weight & cost

o Still under development and expensive

Current Status & Future Scope

 No perfect storage method yet

 Research continues on:

o New materials (hydrides, adsorbents, chemical storage)

o Improving e iciency, cost, and compactness

 Material-based storage is promising but needs more study under real-world conditions

5.4 USE OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

Hydrogen isn’t just a future energy carrier—it’s already being used in various industries. With
clean production methods, its use can expand sustainably and widely.

Current Applications of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is already used in:

 Transportation:

o Commercial buses using:

 Internal combustion engines (ICEs) with hydrogen or hydrogen-blends

 Hydrogen fuel cells for clean power

 Industrial Uses:

o Welding, fabric dyeing, electronics

o Production of plastics, fertilizers, and refined fuels

Hydrogen in Transportation

Hydrogen is a strong candidate for replacing fossil fuels in mobile energy systems (cars, buses,
trains):

 Can be compressed & stored like LPG or CNG

 O ers a clean and e icient alternative to petrol/diesel

Two Key Technologies for Using Hydrogen Energy

Technology Description Advantages

1. Internal Combustion Modified petrol/diesel engine to - Easy to convert existing engines-

Engine (ICE) run on hydrogen Useful as a transition tech

Converts hydrogen’s chemical - Zero emissions- Highly e icient-

2. Fuel Cell (FC)
energy directly into electricity Silent & reliable

Fuel cells are expected to become the preferred long-term solution due to better e iciency and
clean output.

5.6 ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

1. Separation of Energy Source & Use
Hydrogen allows flexibility in how and where energy is used, independent of how it's
produced.

2. Easy Storage
Being a gas, it can be stored more easily than electricity (e.g., batteries).

3. Multiple Sources
Can be produced from any primary energy source, including renewables (solar, wind,
hydro, etc.).

4. Decentralized Production
Enables energy access in remote areas without grid connections; good for vehicles &
storage.

5. High E iciency in Fuel Cells

Especially e ective when used in fuel cells—clean and e icient.

6. Established Industrial Use

Already widely used in producing ammonia, methanol, and in oil refining.

7. Proven Safety (in specific uses)

Hydrogen has a good safety record in many industrial applications.

5.7 DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

1. Low E iciency with Fossil Sources
If hydrogen is produced from fossil-fuel-based electricity, overall e iciency is poor.

2. Low Energy Density

Hydrogen has low volumetric energy density, making it less compact than fossil fuels.

3. Di icult Storage Conditions

Requires high pressure or very low temperatures for liquid storage.

4. Safety & Public Perception Issues

Accidents like Hindenburg and Apollo Challenger impact public trust.
 5. Lack of Infrastructure
No widespread pipelines, fueling stations, or transport systems exist currently.

6. High Cost (Currently)

Still expensive to produce, store, and distribute, especially in clean forms.

5.8 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROGEN ENERGY

1. Hydrogen Storage Challenges

o Needs very high pressure or extremely low temperatures for storage.

o Storage containers must be larger and stronger than regular fuel tanks.

o This makes storage bulky, costly, and inconvenient for consumers.

2. High Reactivity of Hydrogen

o Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive.

o Historical incidents (e.g., Hindenburg disaster) have led to public fear and safety
concerns.

3. Costly and Ine icient Production Methods

o Current hydrogen production requires a lot of energy, often from fossil fuels.

o This reduces environmental benefits and makes the process less sustainable.

o Clean production methods (like electrolysis using renewables) are still under
development.

4. Low Consumer Demand

o Consumers are hesitant due to:

 High vehicle costs

 Limited refueling stations

 Uncertainty about performance & safety

o Manufacturers won’t invest until demand increases—a catch-22 situation.

5. Infrastructure Replacement Costs

o Switching to hydrogen requires major upgrades to:

 Filling stations

 Vehicle assembly lines

 Home appliances

o This transformation will need huge investments and long-term planning.

Chapter 6: Wind Energy
Wind as a Form of Solar Energy

 Sun is the primary source of wind.

 Winds are created due to:

o Uneven heating of the Earth's atmosphere by the sun.

o Irregularities on Earth’s surface (e.g., hills, valleys).

o Earth’s rotation (Coriolis e ect).

 Wind flow is influenced by:

o Terrain (mountains, plains)

o Water bodies (oceans, lakes)

o Vegetation (forests, grasslands)

How Wind Energy Works

 Wind turbines capture wind’s kinetic energy.

 This energy is converted into:

o Mechanical power – used for pumping water or grinding grain.

o Electrical power – using a generator attached to the turbine.

Historical Use of Wind Power

 Ancient applications:

o Sailboats – earliest and major use of wind energy.

o Wind-powered mills – used in Persia, India, and China for grinding grain and
pumping water.

Modern Wind Technology

 Wind turbines transform wind motion into usable energy.

 Two main modern uses:

1. Wind pumps – for water supply and irrigation.

2. Wind generators – for electricity production.

Decline and Revival

 Early 20th century: Windmills declined with the rise of:

o Internal combustion engines

o Electrical power grids

 Recent years: Wind energy is making a comeback due to:

 o Need for clean, renewable sources

o Cost-e ective technologies being developed worldwide

Importance for Developing Countries

 Wind energy can support:

o Agricultural needs (water pumping)

o Rural electrification

6.1 Windmills

 A windmill is a device that uses wind energy to produce mechanical power.

 When the mechanical energy generated by the wind is used directly by a machine (like a
pump or grinding stones), it's specifically called a windmill.

 Unlike wind turbines that generate electricity, windmills perform mechanical tasks
directly.

6.2 Wind Turbines

 A wind turbine captures wind energy and delivers it through a rotating shaft.

 This rotating shaft is similar to that of engines or steam turbines, and it can be
connected to a generator to produce electricity.

 When a wind turbine converts mechanical energy to electricity, it is often called a wind
generator.

Key Challenge:

 Unlike engines, wind is not consistent — its power output is uncontrolled and
unpredictable, especially over short time periods.

 But electricity is needed on demand, not just when the wind blows.

 Hence, energy storage or backup systems are often needed to ensure a reliable power
supply.
6.4 Wind Resources
 Wind speed data is poor in many regions.

 Areas with <3 m/s average wind speed are unsuitable for wind power.

 Areas with 3–4.5 m/s are borderline viable.

 Areas with >4.5 m/s are economically competitive for wind energy.

6.4.1 Worldwide Wind Energy Scenario (2010)

Source: World Wind Energy Report 2010

1. Total Installed Capacity:

o 196,630 MW (added 37,642 MW in 2010).

2. Growth Rate:

o 23.6% in 2010 (lowest since 2004).

3. China:

o Became world leader in total capacity.

o Added 18,928 MW in 2010 alone (~50% of global market).

4. USA:

o Lost top position to China; new installations decreased.

5. Europe:

o Western Europe stagnated.

o Eastern Europe showed strong growth.

o Germany: 27,215 MW

o Spain: 20,676 MW

o Top wind power share:

 Denmark (21%),

 Portugal (18%),

 Spain (16%)

6. Regional Shares of New Installations:

o Asia: 54.6%

o Europe: 27.0%

o North America: 16.7%

o Latin America: 1.2%

o Africa: 0.4%
 7. Africa:

o Mostly North Africa has wind capacity.

o Sub-Saharan Africa has minimal development.

8. Impact of Disasters:

o Nuclear disaster (Japan) + Oil spill (Gulf of Mexico) → Long-term boost for wind
policies.

9. Future Projections by WWEA:

o 600,000 MW by 2015

o 1,500,000 MW by 2020

6.4.2 Wind Energy in India (As of March 31, 2011)

 Installed capacity: 14,158 MW

 Global rank: 5th in the world

 Estimated on-shore potential: 65,000 MW (per Indian Wind Energy Association)

 Gross potential (C-WET): 48,561 MW

Seasonal Wind Patterns in India:

 Summer Monsoon (May–June): Strong south-west winds

 Winter Monsoon (October onward): Weak north-east winds

 Strongest winds: March–August

o Except eastern peninsular coast

o Tamil Nadu has high winds even during Nov–Mar

Notable Features:

 Strong interest from private investors

 Wind power projects are being set up commercially

6.5 Wind Turbine Site Selection

Site selection is complex and involves:

 Multidisciplinary e orts: design, permits, financing, land use, meteorology.

 Three key construction teams:

1. Design team

2. Developer/Construction manager

3. Wind turbine contractor

Key Wind Requirements:

 Uniform wind direction is necessary.

 Turbulence (eddies/swirls) is harmful → causes low energy extraction and turbine

damage.

 Turbines must be placed high enough to avoid turbulent zones.

 Higher towers = better wind, but also higher cost → trade-o needed.

6.5.1 Turbine Height and Placement

Basic Rule of Thumb (Figure 6.2):

Rotor should be at least 10 m above any obstacle within 150 m radius.

 Consider future tree growth over 20–30 years.

 For example:

o 20 m tall trees → use at least a 33 m tower.

Impact of Obstacles:

 A 10 m obstacle can disturb airflow:

o Up to 20 m height

o As far as 200 m downwind

 Avoid placing turbines in turbulent zones (e.g., behind trees, buildings).

Prevailing Wind & Obstructions (Figure 6.3):

 Use wind atlas to find prevailing wind direction.

  Install turbines upwind of obstacles, or far enough downwind to avoid turbulence.

 Turbulence bubble = 2 × obstacle height (H) vertically, 20 × H downwind.

Special Terrain Cases:

Cli s / Sudden Rises (Figures 6.4 & 6.5):

 Strong winds exist, but extreme turbulence near the edge.

 Install turbine 20 m above cli edge to minimize turbulence.

Distance from Buildings:

 Wind turbines generate sound + vibration.

 Minimum 100 ft (≈30 m) from occupied buildings is recommended.

 But too far = higher wiring costs (copper is expensive).

Avoid Roof-Mounted Turbines:

 Seem attractive, but:

o Very turbulent airflow

o Poor performance

o May even consume more electricity than they generate (due to inverter use).

 Conclusion: Do not install wind turbines on rooftops.

Wind Speed vs. Tower Height (Figure 6.6):

 Wind speed increases with height.

 Wind power ∝ (wind speed)³

o 26% increase in speed = 2× power

 o 100% increase in speed = 8× power

 Taller towers = more energy, justifying higher cost.

6.5.2 Considerations and Guidelines for Site Selection

When selecting a site for wind turbines, engineers assess factors that impact wind speed,
e iciency, wear & tear, and power delivery.

Key Factors to Consider

1. Hill E ect

o Wind speeds up as it flows over a hilltop due to pressure buildup.

o Hilltops are ideal for turbine installation.

2. Surface Roughness

o Smooth surfaces (e.g., oceans) = higher wind speeds

o Rough surfaces (e.g., forests, cities) = friction slows wind

o Choose sites with low surface roughness.

3. Tunnel E ect

o Wind accelerates when funneled between barriers (e.g., buildings, mountain

passes).

o Turbines in valleys or passes benefit from increased wind speed.

4. Turbulence

o Caused by natural/artificial barriers.

o Leads to wind fluctuations and mechanical wear.

o Mount turbines high to avoid ground-level turbulence.

5. Wind Speed Variations

o Wind is faster during daytime due to solar heating.

o Seasonal and diurnal changes must be factored into site evaluation.

6. Wake E ect

o Turbine extracts energy → air behind becomes slower and turbulent.

o Turbines in wind farms should be spaced at least 3 rotor diameters apart

downwind.

7. Wind Obstacles

o Trees, buildings, and rock formations create wind shadows and turbulence.

o Avoid areas with dense or tall obstructions near the turbine.

 8. Wind Shear

o Di erence in wind speed at di erent blade heights causes stress on blades.

o Excessive wind shear can lead to mechanical failure.

Practical Guidelines for Selecting a Site

1. High & Open Sites Perform Best

o Coastal, elevated, and unobstructed areas are preferred.

2. Avoid Urban or Densely Populated Areas

o Town centers are not suitable due to space, noise, and turbulence.

3. Avoid Roof-Mounted Turbines

o Risk of vibration damage and poor performance.

4. Minimize Cable Distance

o Longer cables = more power loss and higher installation cost.

5. Manage Turbulence

o Maintain:

 Turbine height > 2× height of nearest obstacle

 Or, distance to obstacle > 2× turbine height

6. Ensure Su icient Wind Speed

o Small turbines need > 4.5 m/s average wind speed for e iciency.

7. Consider Grid Connectivity

o Remote locations → grid connection is costly

o Consider o -grid + battery storage options in such cases.

6.5.3 Wind Turbine Power Output vs. Wind Speed

Wind turbines do not produce power at all wind speeds. Their output follows a characteristic
curve based on wind speed. The key phases are explained below.

Five Key Wind Speeds

Wind Speed Type Description

Wind speed at which the rotor and blades start turning (but no power
1. Start-up Speed
yet).

Minimum wind speed (≈ 3–4 m/s) at which the turbine begins to

2. Cut-in Speed
generate power.
Wind Speed Type Description

Wind speed where the turbine is most e icient (highest energy

3. Design Speed
conversion).

Wind speed where the turbine delivers maximum power output (≈ 12–
4. Rated Speed
17 m/s).

5. Cut-out / Furling High wind speed (≈ 25 m/s) at which the turbine shuts down to prevent
Speed damage.

Power Output vs. Wind Speed Curve Summary

Here's how power output varies with wind speed:

 Below Start-up Speed

o Rotor does not turn → No power generated.

 Between Cut-in and Rated Speed

o Turbine starts generating power.

o Power output increases rapidly with wind speed.

 At Rated Speed

o Generator hits max capacity → Output is capped.

 Beyond Rated Speed (Up to Cut-out)

o Power output remains constant at rated level, but structural stress increases.

o Blade pitch or control systems manage excess wind.

 At Cut-out Speed (~25 m/s)

o Turbine shuts down for safety using:

 Brakes

 Blade pitch control

 Drag flaps or spoilers

 Yawing out of wind

 After Wind Falls Below Cut-out Speed

o Turbine resumes normal operation.

Visual Aid Reference: Figure 6.7

This figure (not shown here) typically plots:

 X-axis: Wind speed (m/s)

 Y-axis: Power output (watts)

 Curve shows:

o Flat line before cut-in speed

o Rising power until rated speed

o Flat line at rated output

o Drop to zero at cut-out speed

Key Takeaways

 Turbines operate only within a specific wind speed range.

 E icient operation is between cut-in and cut-out speeds.

 Safety systems are essential to protect turbines from high-speed wind damage.

6.5.4 Parts of a Wind Turbine

Component Function

1. Nacelle Houses the gearbox, generator, and other key components.

2. Tower Supports the nacelle and rotor. Higher towers access stronger winds.

3. Rotor Blades Capture wind energy and transfer it to the rotor hub.

4. Generator Converts mechanical energy from the shaft into electrical energy.

5. Gearbox Increases the shaft’s rotational speed to suit the generator's input.

6.5.4.1 Blade Count

Factors Influencing Blade Count

 Aerodynamic E iciency
 o 2 blades → ~6% more e icient than 1 blade

o 3 blades → only ~3% more e icient than 2 blades

o More blades beyond 3 = minimal gain in e iciency

 Noise

o Noise increases with the fifth power of blade tip speed.

o Faster blades = significantly louder

 Cost and Manufacturing

o Fewer blades = lower material and manufacturing costs

o Higher blade speed reduces torque, lowering gearbox & generator costs

 Blade Strength and Solidity

o More blades = narrower, thinner blades (to maintain optimum solidity)

o Thin blades may lack sti ness and strength

o More blades = higher cost for stronger materials

 Aesthetics

o 3-bladed turbines are considered most visually appealing

o 1 or 2 blades often look less balanced or elegant

Conclusion on Blade Count

 3 blades is the industry standard:

o Balanced e iciency, strength, cost, and aesthetic appeal

 Fewer blades = faster rotation, lower cost, more noise

 More blades = small e iciency gains, structural and cost challenges

6.5.4.2 Blade Materials

Traditional Materials

 Wood & Canvas (used in early windmills)

o Low-cost, easy to manufacture

o Poor aerodynamic e iciency (flat plate shape)

o High maintenance

 Aluminium (for small blades)

o Lightweight

o Requires frequent maintenance

 o Not ideal for large-scale use

Modern Blade Materials

Material Properties Advantages Disadvantages

Proven tech (esp. for 40–50 m Volatile organic

Fiberglass Glass fiber reinforced
blades) Good strength-to- emissions (in open-
Composites polymers
weight ratio mould methods)

Better environmental &

Epoxy-Based Thermoset resins with Challenges in thick
production performance Cost-
Composites fiberglass/carbon laminate production
e ective

38% weight reduction 14% cost

Carbon Fiber High-performance
savings over 100% fiberglass More expensive (but
Reinforced fibers used for load-
Higher sti ness Solves thick prices are falling)
Spars bearing
lay-up issues

Large Blade Design Challenges

 Blade weight scales with cube of radius → large blades are heavy and hard to manage.

 Blades are now as large as 100–120 meters in diameter.

 Modern tools like HyperSizer (originally for spacecraft) optimize design.

Advanced Manufacturing Techniques

Technique Description Benefit

Pre-impregnated materials Resins pre-applied to fabric Limits emissions Controlled curing

Resin drawn into fabric

Resin infusion Fewer voids, stronger laminates
under vacuum

Hybrid impregnation Combines dry & pre- Better air evacuation & resin flow
(partial dry fabric) impregnated areas Strong, uniform structure

Additional Feature

 Lightning Conductors: Often embedded in blades to prevent strike damage.

Chapter 7: Geothermal Energy

Definition

Geothermal energy is clean, sustainable heat from within the Earth. It originates from:

 Shallow ground (10–16°C)

 Hot water and rock a few kilometers deep

  Molten rock (magma) at extreme depths

Types & Uses

Resource Type Depth/Location Application

Shallow Ground ~few meters Geothermal heat pumps for heating/cooling buildings

Hot Water (near Few hundred Direct use: space heating, greenhouses, fish farms,
surface) meters milk pasteurization

Hot Dry Rocks 4–7 km Inject cold water → extract hot water for energy

Magma Deepest layers Not commercially viable yet (due to cost & tech limits)

Major Applications

1. Electricity generation (e.g., binary cycle plants)

2. Rare element extraction (Iodine, Bromine, Lithium, etc.)

3. Medical, air conditioning, mineral water, spa uses

4. Industrial uses – heating, drying, tech processes

5. Agriculture – greenhouses, seed drying, cattle care

Future Development Goals

To better utilize geothermal energy, advancements are needed in:

1. Low-cost deep drilling (>3 km)

2. Artificial stimulation to increase reservoir output

3. Tech to generate electricity from low-temp, low-pressure resources

4. Wider low-grade resource use (e.g., heating, agriculture, desalination)

5. Environmentally safe geothermal operations

Key Facts

 Reliable, base-load energy (unlike solar/wind)

 Environmentally friendly (low emissions)

 Not yet fully exploited due to cost and depth challenges

 Potential to be a major sustainable energy source

7.1 Geothermal Systems

Earth's Interior Structure (Refer: Fig. 7.1)
  Layers:

o Crust (average thickness ~32 km)

o Mantle

o Magma – hot, molten rock beneath the crust

o Lava – magma that reaches the surface

 Heat Source:

o Produced from radioactive decay of uranium, potassium, etc.

o The heat within just 10 km of Earth’s crust is 50,000 times more than all global oil
and gas reserves combined.

Temperature Gradient

 Heat moves slowly from magma towards the Earth’s surface due to a natural
temperature gradient.

 Average geothermal gradient: 1°C every 31 m depth.

 Volcanoes form when magma breaks through weak spots in the crust.

 Hot springs/geysers occur where groundwater contacts hot magma or solidified hot
rock.

Geothermal Activity at the Surface

 Steam and hot water reach the surface naturally through:

o Hot springs

o Geysers

o Volcanic activity

o Fault lines

 Thermal areas (where the gradient is steep) are suitable for current geothermal energy
extraction.

Geothermal Resource Base

 Defined as total underground heat >15°C.

  Only a small portion is economically usable due to:

o Depth limitations

o Technology constraints

o Cost-e ectiveness

o Government policies

Tapping the Resource

 Current methods are limited to shallow, high-temperature areas.

 Non-thermal areas still hold vast heat reserves—but not economically accessible yet.

 Future prospects may include:

o Deep drilling into magma

o Possibly using advanced tech like underground nuclear explosions

(hypothetical)

Environmental Impact

 Geothermal projects have minimal environmental disruption:

o No fuel mining, transport, or processing needed

o Localized impact (site-dependent)

o Cleaner than fossil fuels

7.2 Classifications of Geothermal Systems

Geothermal systems are broadly classified into two main types based on the dominant fluid:

1. Vapour-Dominated (Dry Steam) Systems

 Rare and less understood compared to liquid-dominated systems.

 Require:

o High heat supply

o Low initial permeability

 Process:

o Begins with a hot water stage.

o Becomes vapor-dominated when water recharge is less than steam discharge.

o Steam forms as water boils from a lowering water table.

o Most steam condenses underground, forming a deep steam reservoir.

o Steam rises through large channels, while water stays in small pores due to
surface tension di erences.
  Example features:

o Steam dominates large flow channels.

o Wells tap directly into steam reservoirs.

2. Liquid-Dominated (Hot Water) Systems

 Most common type worldwide.

 Contain hot water at moderate temperatures and low enthalpies.

 Often unsuitable for direct power generation, but ideal for direct heating applications:

o Space heating

o Industrial processes

o Greenhouses and aquaculture

 Power Generation Example:

o At Wairakei (New Zealand) and Baja California (Mexico):

 Subsurface water reaches up to 260°C

 Water is brought to the surface through wells.

 Pressure drop causes partial flash to steam (10%–20% steam).

 Steam separated from water and used to drive turbines.

Geothermal Steam Composition

 Typically contains 1%–3% non-condensable gases:

o Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – dominant

o Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) – corrosive

o Hydrogen, methane (CH₄), nitrogen (N₂) – in smaller amounts

 Challenges:

o Corrosion of equipment due to gas content

 Opportunities:

o Some gases (e.g., CO₂, sulphur, ammonium compounds) can be commercially

recovered as by-products.

7.3 Geothermal Resource Utilization

🔸 7.3.1 Direct Use of Low-Grade Geothermal Energy
Low-temperature geothermal energy (≤149°C) is used directly for heating without converting it
into electricity.
Applications:

1. Aquaculture & Horticulture:

o Used to heat greenhouses and fish farms.

o Countries: Italy, Hungary, USA, China, Japan, Iceland.

o Grows vegetables, fish, shellfish, and even amphibians.

2. Industry & Agriculture:

o For drying fruits, vegetables, timber, and wool.

o Used in paper mills, gold/silver extraction, and de-icing roads.

3. Food Processing:

o Utilized for sterilizing equipment and rooms.

o Reduces dependency on chemicals.

4. Residential & District Heating:

o Used since 15th century (France) and 1893 (USA).

o Provides both heating in winter and cooling in summer via geothermal heat
pumps.

o Highly e icient and cost-e ective depending on local grid emissions.

Key Insights:

 Direct-use systems have low emissions if powered by clean electricity.

 Geothermal heat pumps are growing fast (~30% per year).

 Around 70 countries use 270 PJ geothermal heat, with 28 GW installed capacity.

 District heating is widely adopted in Iceland, USSR, Hungary, and others.

🔸 7.3.2 Electricity Generation from Geothermal Energy

High-temperature geothermal fluids are used to produce electricity.

Types of Power Plants:

1. Flashed Steam Plants: Hot water is flashed to steam to spin turbines.

2. Dry Steam Plants: Directly use natural underground steam.

3. Binary Power Plants: Transfer heat to a secondary fluid which vaporizes and turns
turbines.

4. Hybrid Plants: Combine flash and binary methods.

Global Scenario:

 First plant: Larderello, Italy

  Major sites: Geysers (USA), Wairakei (NZ), Baja California (Mexico)

 Installed capacity: ~11,000 MW globally

 Estimated potential: 60,000 MW (by DE White, US Geological Survey)

 Emerging demo sites: Germany, France, Australia, UK, USA

By-Products:

 Carbon dioxide, sulphur, boric acid, ammonium compounds

 Example: Panzhetsho (USSR) – Electricity + hot water for local heating

🔸 7.3.3 Multi-purpose Total Energy Utilization

E icient and integrated use of geothermal resources across multiple domains:

Possible Uses:

1. Steam – Used for power and water production

2. CO₂ – For refrigeration and food processing

3. H₂S – Refined into sulphur

4. Hot water – For desalination, irrigation, and mineral extraction

5. Residual heat – For air conditioning, refrigeration, and mineral recovery

7.4 Resource Exploration

Overview

 High geothermal potential areas have heat flow >1.5 × 10⁻⁶ cal/cm²/s.

 Most are found in tectonically active or volcanic zones with hot springs.

Exploration Techniques

 Geological: Mapping volcanoes, tectonics, and surface sampling.

 Remote Sensing: Aerial infrared/radar scanning detects geothermal zones.

 Geochemical: Analyzing spring water for silica, Na/K/Ca ratios to infer subsurface
temperatures.

 Geophysical:

o Temperature gradient drilling (25–100 m).

o Electrical Conductivity: High in geothermal reservoirs; assessed via resistivity,

self-potential, and magnetotelluric methods.

o Seismic: Micro-earthquakes and ground noise help locate permeable zones.

 o Gravitational & Magnetic: Used under specific geological conditions.

 Drilling Tech: Rotary percussion is promising. Needs better tools for high-temp logging,
fractured zones, and core recovery.

 Hydrological & Chemical Studies: Important to analyze water movement, solution

chemistry (100–400°C), and isotopic characteristics of fluids.

7.4.1 Prospects in India

 India has 300+ hot springs, mainly in Ladakh, Himachal, Bihar, Gujarat, and
Maharashtra.

 Key sites:

o Puga (Ladakh): ~25 MW potential; temp: 50°C–110°C.

o Manikaran (Himachal): 69°C–93°C; contains Na, Cl, sulfur.

o Rajgir (Bihar): 35.5°C–42.5°C; exceptionally pure thermal water.

o Surajkund (Jharkhand): 87°C; high flow rate.

o Cambay (Gujarat): Hot water/steam detected during oil exploration (depth: 1.5–2
km).

 Government initiatives since 1966, with assistance from the USA (1973), aim to develop
geothermal fields for energy generation and other uses.

 Most Indian geothermal fields are low-temp, liquid-dominated, suitable for binary cycle
power generation or direct-use applications.

7.5 Geothermal-Based Electric Power Generation

Geothermal-based power generation converts underground hydrothermal energy (hot
water/steam) into electricity. There are four main plant types, with the binary cycle (using the
Rankine cycle) emerging as one of the fastest-growing technologies due to its ability to utilize low-
to medium-temperature resources e iciently.

7.5.1 Dry Steam-Based Geothermal Power Plants

 Oldest Technology: First used in 1904 in Larderello, Italy; proven and reliable with over
100 years of operation history.

 Current Example: The Geysers, California – the largest dry steam field in the world.

 Working Principle:

o Dry steam from geothermal wells is directly piped to a turbine.

o The turbine spins a generator, producing electricity.

o Spent steam is cooled and condensed using a cooling tower.

 o Condensed water is re-injected back into the reservoir to sustain the cycle.

Components:

 Production Well: Extracts dry steam.

 Turbine & Generator: Converts steam energy to electricity.

 Condenser: Cools and converts steam to water.

 Cooling Tower: Uses air/water to remove heat from condenser.

 Injection Well: Returns condensate to the reservoir.

 Auxiliary Units:

o Rock Catcher: Removes large solids.

o Centrifugal Separator: Removes condensate and small solids.

o Scrubber: Filters dissolved and fine particulates.

Key Features:

 Simple system: Only needs steam pipes, separators, and injection wells.

 Clean operation: Minimal emissions when properly managed.

 Limitation: Requires rare dry steam reservoirs.

Contribution:

 Today, dry steam plants produce ~40% of U.S. geothermal electricity.

 All U.S. dry steam plants are located at The Geysers, California.

7.5.2 Flash Geothermal Power Plants

Flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power plants in the world today.
They generate electricity by flashing (vaporizing) high-pressure, high-temperature geothermal
water into steam, which drives a turbine.

Working Principle

 Hot, high-pressure liquid water is extracted from geothermal wells.

  At the surface, when pressure is lowered, part of the water flashes into steam inside a
flash tank (separator).

 This steam spins a turbine, powering a generator.

 The remaining liquid is either:

o Reused in a second flash stage (in double-flash plants), or

o Used for direct heating, then re-injected into the reservoir.

First plant: Wairakei, New Zealand (1958)

Required temperature: 177°C–260°C
About 45% of U.S. geothermal power comes from flash systems

Types of Flash Plants

1. Single-Flash Plant (Figure 7.3):

 One flash tank.

 Simpler design, good for moderately hot geothermal fields.

2. Double-Flash Plant (Figure 7.4):

 Two flash tanks (high-pressure and low-pressure stages).

 More e icient energy extraction.

 Used in higher-temperature fields.

Advantages of Flash Plants

1. Low emissions – environmentally friendly.

2. Safe and reliable operation.

 3. Weather-independent power generation.

4. Cost-e ective over the plant’s lifespan.

5. Sustainable with proper re-injection.

6. Small land footprint.

7. No fuel cost – uses natural geothermal energy.

Disadvantages

1. High upfront capital cost (drilling, infrastructure).

2. Risk of induced seismicity from deep drilling and re-injection.

3. Location-specific – needs high-temperature geothermal zones.

4. Overexploitation risk – poor management can deplete reservoir pressure.

7.5.3 Binary Cycle-based Geothermal Plants

Binary cycle geothermal power plants are designed to utilize lower-temperature geothermal
resources e ectively. Unlike dry steam or flash systems, no geothermal fluid directly enters the
turbine.

Working Principle

 The geothermal fluid (hot water or steam, or a mix) flows through a heat exchanger.

 The heat exchanger transfers heat to a secondary fluid (e.g., isopentane or isobutane)—
known as the working fluid—which has a low boiling point.

 This working fluid vaporizes, and the vapor drives a turbine, which powers the generator.

 After expansion, the vapor is cooled, condensed, and recirculated in a closed loop.

 The geothermal fluid is also reinjected into the reservoir—keeping the system
sustainable and emission-free.

No mixing occurs between geothermal fluid and working fluid (closed-loop system).
Operates at lower temperatures: 74°C – 177°C
Used in ~15% of geothermal plants worldwide
Enabled by 1980s tech improvements in low-temp electricity production
Key Advantages

1. Utilizes low-to-moderate temperature geothermal resources.

2. Zero emissions — completely closed cycle.

3. Can be deployed in more geographical locations.

4. Environmentally safe — no brine or gases released.

Key Disadvantages

1. Lower e iciency than flash or dry steam plants.

2. More complex due to use of secondary working fluids.

3. Higher operation and maintenance costs for some components.

Best Use Case

Binary plants are ideal for:

 Areas with low-to-moderate geothermal temperatures

 Applications where environmental sensitivity and low emissions are crucial

 Modular, scalable geothermal power solutions

7.5.4 Electrical and Mechanical Features

While geothermal power plants share many components with fossil-fueled plants, corrosive
gases in geothermal steam (like H₂S) introduce unique material and design requirements.

Material & Design Considerations

1. Pipelines & Turbines:

o Standard carbon steel and low-pressure turbine materials are su icient in

steam paths.

2. Condensate Handling:

o Condensate exposed to oxygen causes severe corrosion.

 o Use austenitic stainless steel for linings.

o Above-grade: stainless steel or aluminum.

o Below-grade: cement asbestos or glass-reinforced plastic.

3. Copper Avoidance:

o Copper and copper alloys (bronze, brass) are attacked by H₂S.

o Avoid using copper in electrical instruments and switchgear unless protected.

4. Concrete Protection:

o Condensate corrodes concrete.

o Use epoxy, bitumen, or neoprene coatings.

5. Coatings:

o Galvanized coatings perform better than cadmium coatings.

Electrical Equipment Precautions

 Locate relays, switchgear, and motor controls in clean, pressurized rooms.

 Use static-type excitation systems to avoid copper commutators in exciters.

7.5.5 Operation of Geothermal Plants

Geothermal plants are generally easier to operate and require less attention compared to
conventional thermal plants.

Operational Features

1. Simplified operation – no boilers or complex fuel systems.

2. Can be monitored remotely – roving operators handle routine tasks.

3. Equipped with alarm systems (annunciators) to alert remote stations of issues.

Maintenance Practices

 Frequent inspection required – more often than fossil units.

 Turbine stop valves must be:

o Tested 3–4 times daily to prevent jamming.

o Lubricated regularly.

 Heat exchangers should be:

o Single-pass or U-tube design to reduce clogging from sulphur or rock dust.

 Steam jet ejectors:

o Produce high noise – ear protection required.

Night Operation Note

 Turbine vacuum is better at night due to cooler temperatures improving cooling tower
performance.

 Risk of overloading the generator at night → install load-limiting devices that regulate
output regardless of environmental conditions.

Feature Details

Corrosion Control Use of stainless steel, aluminum, plastic-lined piping

Copper Sensitivity Copper corroded by H₂S – avoided in instruments

Automation Operates without attendants; alarms and load control systems used

Inspection Frequency Higher than fossil plants; valves tested multiple times daily

Noise Management Steam ejectors are loud; PPE required

Environmental Sensitivity Better vacuum and cooling at night can increase load

7.6 Associated Problems in Geothermal Power Plants

While geothermal energy o ers clean and sustainable power, several technical and operational
challenges still a ect its optimal use.

1. Reservoir Life Estimation

 Key challenge: Predicting the productive lifespan of a geothermal reservoir.

 This a ects the economic sizing of the power station.

 Accurate estimation is di icult due to the unique geological characteristics and lack of
reliable prediction models.

 Current predictions mostly rely on historical data, which may not always apply to new
sites.

2. Steam-Water Separation and Transmission

 Separation of steam from the steam-water mixture at wellheads is complex.

 Requires specialized equipment and careful handling.

 Transporting only steam over long distances to the power house adds to system design
complexity.

3. Unclear Geothermal Origins

 Despite well-developed fields (e.g., Larderello and The Geysers), scientists still do not
fully understand:
 o Why dry steam systems form in some places.

o Why hot water systems are more common.

 The origin and nature of these geothermal systems remain a subject of ongoing
research.

4. Material Selection Issues

 Geothermal fluids contain corrosive gases (e.g., H₂S, CO₂).

 Materials must resist corrosion while also fulfilling electrical and mechanical
requirements.

 Finding cost-e ective, durable materials is a persistent challenge.

5. Expensive Automatic Control Systems

 Automatic start controls are costly.

 Most geothermal plants use manual-start controls.

 Any serious fault or trip condition requires manual inspection and reset, which can
delay recovery.

Problem Details

Reservoir Life Estimation Di icult to predict; impacts investment and design.

Separation at wellhead is tricky; long pipelines increase

Steam Separation & Transport
complexity.

Unknown Geothermal System Scientific understanding of steam vs hot water systems is

Origins incomplete.

Material Challenges High corrosion risk requires advanced, costly materials.

Cheaper but slower recovery from faults due to need for

Manual Start Control
manual checks.

7.7 Environmental E ects of Geothermal Power Plants

Though geothermal energy is relatively clean and renewable, its development and operation can
cause several environmental issues. These impacts may stretch beyond the geothermal field
into surrounding regions.

7.7.1 Gaseous and Particulate Emissions

 Geothermal fluids contain gases like:

o CO₂, H₂S, CH₄, NH₃

 These contribute to:

o Global warming
 o Acid rain

o Noxious odors

 Emissions from geothermal plants: ~122 kg of CO₂ per MWh (far lower than fossil fuels).

 Can also contain toxic elements:

o Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As), Boron (B), Antimony (Sb)

 Mitigation:

o Emission-control systems

o Reinjection of cooled fluids reduces release

o Research needed on:

 Chemical composition

 Exposure limits

 Monitoring and safe disposal

 Particulate emission identification and regulation

7.7.2 Land Pollution

 Issues:

o Degradation of usable soil

o On-site surface pollution that spreads

 Vapour-dominated systems:

o Contain elements like Hg, As, Se, Pb-210

o Need site-specific pollutant studies

 Water-dominated systems:

o Risk of accidental fluid runo

o May cause:

 Soil sterilization

 Biological magnification

 Entry into food chains

 Controls needed:

o Blowout contingency plans

o Erosion and chemical deposition controls

7.7.3 Subsidence E ects

 Land sinking may occur when geothermal fluids are extracted.
  Behavior is inconsistent across sites.

 Better understood from petroleum & groundwater studies, but geothermal-specific data
is limited.

 Monitoring and predictive tools are available but need adaptation.

7.7.4 Seismic Hazards

 Geothermal sites often lie in tectonically active regions.

 Fluid withdrawal/injection can alter pressure and potentially trigger earthquakes.

 Solution: Install seismic monitoring stations near geothermal zones to study patterns
and risks.

7.7.5 Water Pollution

 Risk of surface and groundwater contamination by geothermal fluids.

 Research needed to:

o Identify harmful chemicals

o Develop cost-e ective sampling and analysis techniques

o Study fluid migration and reinjection e ectiveness via chemical/isotopic

analysis

7.7.6 Biological E ects

 Potential e ects include:

o Chemical imbalance in soil/water

o Toxic e ects on plant and animal life

o Habitat destruction (e.g., thermal pools)

o Disruption of migration patterns

o Changes in humidity

o Human interference in fragile ecosystems

 Research is needed in selected sites to protect biodiversity.

7.7.7 Social E ects

 Include:

o Noise pollution

o Land use conflicts

 Require:

o Sociological, economic, and policy studies

o Guidelines for fair land use and community impact assessment

E ect Key Issue Solution Needed

Gaseous Emissions CO₂, H₂S, CH₄, toxins Emission controls, reinjection

Land Pollution Runo , deposition Site-specific studies, containment plans

Subsidence Ground sinking Monitoring tools, predictive research

Seismic Hazard Earthquake risk Seismic monitoring stations

Water Pollution Contamination Sampling, reinjection studies

Biological E ects Habitat & species loss Ecosystem studies, conservation

Social E ects Noise, land conflict Policy and planning research

Chapter 8: Solid Wastes and Agricultural Refuse

1. Definition of Waste

 Waste is the unwanted byproduct of production and consumption.

 It is also known as:

o Garbage

o Rubbish

o Refuse

 Waste is:

o Useless or harmful

o A threat to the environment

o A negative output of economic and energy systems

2. Traditional Waste Disposal Methods

 Carried through sewers or dumped in dustbins

 Burned and released into the air

 Dumped in:

o Abandoned quarries

o Oceans

o Gutters

o Behind hedges (fly-tipping)

3. Emerging Problems with Traditional Methods

  Space for dumping is running out

 Dumping causes serious environmental damage

4. Environmental Impact

 Landfills:

o Major cause of global warming (release methane)

o Pollute groundwater

 Incinerators:

o Emit harmful substances:

 Acid gases

 Mercury

 Dioxins

 Furans

o These emissions are toxic and hazardous to health

8.1 Waste is Wealth

New Concept

 Waste is now seen as a resource, not just garbage.

 Focus: “Trash to Cash” or “Waste to Wealth”

Key Drivers of Change

1. Growing awareness of waste disposal hazards

2. Global concern over climate change and resource depletion

3. Economic opportunities from regulations and technologies

4. Fuel shortage pushing interest in biofuels from agriculture

Main Concepts to Convert Waste to Energy

Method Description

1. Heat Energy Direct combustion of waste for boiler fuel and heat

2. Bioenergy Biological conversion to methane, reducing waste hazards

3. Eco-modification Recycling improves design, reduces waste, and saves energy

4. Waste-to-Fuel Use forest, agricultural, and municipal waste as raw material for fuels
8.1.1 Incinerators
What is Incineration?

 Burning waste in a furnace to:

o Reduce volume

o Generate electricity via heat-steam conversion

 Used to treat hazardous and clinical waste

Incineration Process

1. Waste Audit – Study waste type and amount

2. Incinerator Selection – Choose suitable modern incinerators

3. Operation – Ensure safe combustion and personnel protection

4. Toxic Removal – Use scrubbers, chimneys, and cooling systems

5. Residue Handling – Safely dispose of ash and residue in landfills

Advantages

 Reduces transport and landfill costs

 Small footprint, less land needed

 Eliminates leachates, pathogens, and odors

 Can generate electricity

 Works in all weather

 Long life and economical over time

Disadvantages

 Produces toxic gases (dioxins, furans)

 May emit CO₂ and unpleasant smells

 High setup cost and energy-intensive

8.1.2 Pyrolysis
Definition

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic waste at high temperatures (typically >430°C)
in the absence of oxygen, producing:

 Char (solid residue like charcoal)

 Oil (fuel or chemical feedstock)

 Combustible gases (e.g., CO, H₂, CH₄)

How Pyrolysis Works

 Works on mixed waste, plastics, tires, sewage sludge

 Heat breaks down waste without combustion

 Small amount of oxidation may occur due to traces of oxygen

 O -gases may be:

o Flared, reused, or cleaned using secondary thermal units

o Filtered with wet scrubbers or fabric filters

End Products

Product Use

Char/solid Used as fuel or disposed of (contains carbon and ash)

Oil/liquid Can be used as boiler fuel, chemical feedstock, or refined

Gas Used for energy generation (syngas)

Direct use of pyrolysis liquids may be toxic or corrosive.

Advantages of Pyrolysis

1. Greatly reduces waste volume

2. Produces solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels

3. Output fuels are storable and transportable

4. More eco-friendly than incineration or landfill

5. Low air emissions due to limited oxygen

6. Easier to control emissions

7. Utilizes renewable waste sources (MSW, sludge)

8. Helps replace coal/natural gas, reducing climate impact

9. Works well in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) systems

10. Supports sustainable recycling

11. Plants are modular and scalable

Disadvantages of Pyrolysis

1. May create toxic residues (ash, inorganics)

2. Risk of toxic air emissions (e.g., dioxins, acid gases)

3. Requires a minimum amount of feedstock to run e iciently

Pyrolysis vs. Incineration (Table)

Aspect Pyrolysis Incineration

Oxygen Use No oxygen (anaerobic) Requires oxygen (aerobic)

Temperature Lower (450–500°C) Higher (≥850°C)

Process Type Controlled chemical process Combustion process

High-quality fuel (solid, liquid,

End Products Heat energy (for steam/electricity), ash
gas)

Good control over dioxins and Emits CO₂, SOx, NOx, and other harmful
Emission Control
toxic gases gases

Resource recovery (fuel & Waste volume reduction and energy

Purpose
feedstock) recovery

Minimal (due to low/no

Air Emissions More significant air pollution risks
oxygen)

Environmental Less harmful, sustainable and More polluting, but still used widely for
Impact flexible energy-from-waste

8.1.3 Anaerobic Digestion

Definition

Anaerobic digestion is a biological process where microorganisms decompose biodegradable

waste without oxygen, inside an airtight chamber (anaerobic digester).

Process & Outputs

 Converts organic waste into:

o Biogas (used for electricity, heat, renewable natural gas, fuel)

o Digestate solids (used for compost, bedding, or soil application)

o Liquid nutrients (used as fertilizers)

Feedstocks

 Livestock manure

 Municipal wastewater solids

 Food waste

 FOG (fats, oils, and grease)

 Industrial wastewater and residuals

Advantages

 Converts waste into renewable energy

  Reduces landfill burden

 Byproducts have agricultural use

 Supports 24x7 energy generation

8.1.4 Recycling
Definition

Recycling involves collecting and processing discarded materials to create new products,
forming a closed-loop system rather than a one-way (linear) disposal system.

Key Concepts

 Focus is more on collection and sorting systems than high-tech plants

 Central to the circular economy model

 Reduces environmental impact by decreasing waste and pollution

Benefits

 Cleans the environment, reduces landfill waste

 Economic tool: creates jobs, boosts local businesses

 Part of Waste to Wealth programs

 Reduces dependence on primary/raw resources

 Especially useful in electronics, automotive, and machinery sectors

Advantages

 Encourages reuse and reduction

 Supports community development

 Provides social, economic, and environmental benefits

8.1.5 Bioenergy Conversion

Definition

Bioenergy conversion refers to generating energy (liquid or electric) from biological sources
(e.g., plants, algae, crops), o ering high potential for countries like India.

Why It’s Important for India

1. Decentralized power needs in rural/remote areas

2. Rising energy demand

3. Need for protein-rich food sources

4. Low-cost energy storage and collection methods

Key Steps

1. Photosynthesis: Organic matter production

2. Harvesting & Processing: Collect plant material

3. Fermentation: Produces liquid (ethanol, methanol) and gaseous fuels

Promising Biomass Sources

 Sugar crops (e.g., sugarcane)

 Algal crops

 Grains, grasses, trees

8.2 Key Issues

Before launching an RDF project, the following critical factors must be assessed:

1. Waste Collection

 E icient and consistent collection of refuse from:

o Households (door-to-door)

o Commercial establishments

o Community dumps

o Landfill/final disposal sites

2. Refuse Volume & Composition

 Understand:

o How much waste is available

o What type of waste (organic, plastic, inert, etc.)

 This impacts the quality and yield of RDF

3. Process & Market

 Identify:

o The best RDF processing technology (e.g., shredding, drying, pelletizing)

o Availability of a market for the RDF product (who will use it and for what)

4. User Base & Revenue

 Estimate:

o Who will buy the RDF (e.g., cement plants, power plants)

o How much income the RDF sales will generate

5. Alternative Disposal Costs

  Compare RDF to:

o Landfilling

o Incineration

o Composting or other waste treatment

 Check if RDF is more economical or sustainable

6. Solar Thermal Integration

 Consider using solar thermal energy to:

o Raise digester temperatures

o Improve process e iciency

o Reduce dependence on external energy sources

8.3 Waste Recovery Management Scheme

This section outlines a systematic approach to managing waste and recovering energy from it,
illustrated through Figure 8.1 (described below).

Waste-to-Energy Process Flow (Figure 8.1)

This flow shows the life cycle of waste—from generation to final disposal—with energy recovery
as a key step.

Key Components Explained

1. Waste Composition

 Post-energy-utilization waste is mostly non-organic.

 Requires identification & separation using advanced techniques.

2. On-site Processing

 Use compactors or industrial shredders at source.

 Reduces waste volume early and improves manageability.

3. Collection & Transportation

  Most expensive phase due to:

o Technical challenges

o Social/environmental factors

 Needs careful cost planning to minimize running costs.

4. Storage & Final Disposal

 Proper storage after energy extraction is crucial.

 Choose storage and disposal sites wisely.

Energy Recovery Methods

Two broad systems are used:

(1) Material Separation

 Recover metal, glass, paper using:

o Size reduction

o Screening

o Vibrating sorters

o Electronic scanners

(2) Energy Conversion

 Remaining waste is converted into:

o Biogas (methane) → via biological methods

o Electricity → via thermo-mechanical processes

o Compost/fertilizer

8.3.1 Waste Treatment

Treatment refers to processing waste to render it harmless, with or without energy recovery.

Common Methods:

 Incineration: Burning with oxygen

 Pyrolysis: Heating without oxygen

Selection Criteria:

 Must be socially acceptable

 Environmentally friendly

 Economically feasible

Final Disposal:
  Landfilling (systematic burial) is the cheapest option, used when recovery isn’t viable.

8.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Recycling

8.4.1 Advantages of Waste Recycling
Recycling is essential for energy conservation, pollution control, and resource e iciency. Key
benefits include:

1. Environmental Protection

o Reduces the need to extract and process raw materials (e.g., fewer trees cut).

o Conserves natural resources like forests and minerals.

2. Lower Energy Consumption

o Manufacturing from recycled materials requires less energy.

o Saves money and raw material usage in the long run.

3. Pollution Reduction

o Reusing plastics, metals, etc., reduces industrial waste and open dumping.

o Keeps land, air, and water cleaner; requires less landfill space.

4. Global Warming Mitigation

o Cuts down on greenhouse gas emissions from incineration and decomposition.

o Contributes to climate change action.

5. Sustainable Use of Resources

o Encourages responsible usage.

o Helps conserve materials for future generations.

8.4.2 Disadvantages of Waste Recycling

Despite its benefits, recycling also has limitations:

1. High Setup and Processing Costs

o Establishing recycling plants and logistics is expensive.

o Transportation and cleaning can also cause secondary pollution.

2. Low Product Quality & Durability

o Recycled products often have shorter lifespans.

o May be made from inferior or overused materials.

3. Health and Hygiene Concerns

 o Recycling processes and sites can be unhygienic and unsafe.

o Improper handling can pose health risks to workers and nearby communities.

8.4.3 Status of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) in India

 Municipalities allocate only 10–50% of their budget to waste management.

 Majority of funds go to salaries and transportation, not scientific disposal.

 Poor collection and transport systems are common.

 Unprocessed waste in open dumps causes:

o Severe public health hazards

o Land, air, and water pollution (e.g., river contamination)

Takeaway Summary Table

Aspect Advantages Disadvantages

Environment Reduces deforestation and pollution Poor treatment still causes pollution

Economy Saves energy and raw material costs High initial costs for recycling plants

Health Reduces emissions, cleaner environment Sites may be unhygienic and unsafe

Sustainability Conserves resources for future Recycled products may be low quality

8.4.4 Tips on Reducing Waste and Conserving Resources

The Three R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

The 3 R’s help achieve resource conservation, reduce energy waste, and minimize pressure on
landfills. This approach also saves money, land, and environmental damage.

Reduce – Use Less, Waste Less

Most e ective method of waste management: Avoid generating waste in the first place.

Tips to Reduce Waste:

 Avoid disposable products (e.g., paper plates, razors, lighters).

 Buy durable goods with warranties — longer lifespan saves money and landfill space.

 Use digital services: online tickets, e-bills, e-banking to reduce paper use.

 Use cloth/jute bags instead of plastic.

 Avoid over-packaged goods.

 Avoid toxic materials.

 Conserve water and electricity; choose energy-e icient appliances.

Reuse – Use Again Before You Throw
Extends the life of products and avoids the need to produce new ones.

Ways to Reuse:

 Use items again (e.g., bags, containers, tools, furniture).

 Repair broken items instead of replacing them.

 Recover and reuse building materials (e.g., doors, windows, plumbing).

 O ice supplies like desks, chairs, and binders can be reused in schools and
organizations.

 Prefer reusable items over single-use versions.

Recycle – Give Waste a New Life

Reprocessing waste into new products, conserving raw materials and reducing pollution.

Examples of Recycling:

 Glass, plastic, paper, and metal can be recycled.

 A recycled plastic bottle can become jacket filling.

 Start recycling at home, school, and o ice for better global impact.

Recycling Process:

Use ➝ Collect ➝ Process ➝ Remanufacture ➝ Resell

Summary Table: Three R’s Comparison

R Main Goal Examples

Reduce Minimize waste generation Avoid disposables, save energy, go digital

Reuse Extend item life Repair, repurpose, recover materials

Recycle Transform waste into new products Recycle paper, plastics, metals, glass

8.5 SOURCES AND TYPES OF WASTES

Waste originates from various human and industrial activities. The main sources and types
include:

1. Residential Wastes

Source: Homes (single-family or multi-family dwellings)

Includes:

 Kitchen waste (food scraps)

 Paper, cardboard

 Clothes, leather items

  Plastics, rubber

 Glass, wood, metal

 Furniture

 Electrical & electronic gadgets

2. Municipal Services Wastes

Source: Public services and infrastructure

Includes:

 Street sweepings

 Park and recreational area waste

 Landscaping and tree trimming waste

 Sludge (from drains or treatment)

3. Industrial and Commercial Wastes

Source: Factories, businesses, restaurants, etc.

Includes:

 Housekeeping & food waste

 Packaging materials

 Construction/demolition scraps

 Plastics, wood, paper, cardboard

 Hazardous waste (chemicals, solvents)

4. Construction and Demolition Wastes

Source: Building sites (new and demolished structures)

Includes:

 Concrete

 Wood

 Steel

 Dust and rubble

5. Agricultural Wastes

Source: Farms and agro-based industries

Includes:

 Crop residues

 Dairy waste

 Pesticide and chemical containers

  Hazardous agro-chemicals

8.6 RECYCLING OF PLASTICS

Importance of Plastics

 Widely used in daily life: bottles, toys, furniture, medical devices, etc.

 Durable and inert, but this also means they decompose very slowly in landfills.

 Largest use: containers and packaging (e.g., bottles, lids).

Plastic Categories

Type Properties Uses

Permanently harden when heated (cannot be Automobiles, construction,

Thermosets
remelted). adhesives

Soften on heating; can be reshaped

Thermoplastics Milk jugs, carpets, credit cards
repeatedly.

Plastic Waste Statistics

 80% sent to landfill

 8% incinerated

 Only 7% is recycled

 Plastic production consumes 8% of global oil supply

Benefits of Recycling Plastics

 Reduces fossil fuel use

 Saves energy

 Cuts landfill waste

 Reduces carbon emissions

 Supports circular economy

8.6.1 Plastic Recycling Process

1. Collection: Curbside bins/drop-o sites

2. Sorting: By plastic type at Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs)

3. Washing & Grinding: Plastics cleaned, ground into flakes

4. Separation: Using flotation tank based on density

 5. Melting & Filtering: Flakes melted and filtered

6. Pelletizing: Formed into plastic pellets

7. Remanufacturing: Used to create new plastic products

8.6.2 Plastic Resin Identification Code (RIC)

 Introduced by SPI (1988), now under ASTM International

 Used globally to identify types of plastic polymers

 Symbol: Triangle with numbers 1 to 7 (not always recyclable in all areas)

RIC No. Plastic Type Examples

1 PET or PETE Water bottles, soda bottles

2 HDPE Milk jugs, detergent bottles

3 PVC Pipes, clear food packaging

4 LDPE Grocery bags, sandwich bags

5 PP Yogurt containers, straws

6 PS Disposable plates, cups

7 Others (e.g., polycarbonate) Mixed plastics, sunglasses, DVDs

Note: The RIC symbol ≠ recyclable. It just indicates the resin type, not recyclability.

8.6.3 Benefits of Plastic Recycling

Benefit Details

1. Conserves Energy & Saves oil, natural gas, and water used in plastic production. Reduces
Resources need for raw materials.

2. Protects the Cuts GHG emissions from factories, saves animals from ingestion,
Environment and reduces soil/water/air pollution.

3. Reduces Landfill Plastics are non-biodegradable; recycling frees up landfill space and
Waste enables reuse.

Manufacturing from recycled plastic uses up to 2/3 less energy than

4. Saves Energy
using raw materials.
8.6.4 Thermal Depolymerization (TDP)
 TDP = Breaking down plastics into crude oil using heat, pressure, and no oxygen
(pyrolysis).

 Mimics natural fossil fuel formation but much faster.

Steps in Pyrolysis Process:

1. Uniform heating (370°C–420°C)

2. Oxygen-free chamber (anaerobic)

3. Carbon byproduct removal

4. Condensation of gases into liquid fuel

Products:

 Liquid hydrocarbons (like diesel, naphtha)

 Coke & gas (used for energy)

 Power output: 1L oil → ~5kW of electricity

8.6.4.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis

 Uses catalyst to:

o Lower reaction temperature and time

o Produce lighter hydrocarbons

o Reduce solid waste

 Economical & high e iciency — potential for commercial-scale recycling

8.6.5 Plastic to Oil in India (Surat Example)

 Surat, Gujarat: Pilot city for plastic-to-oil plant

 Process:

o Heated vessel in vacuum (no oxygen)

o Plastic is cracked into crude oil

o Output: Oil, gas (energy reuse), solids (commercial or treated waste)

o Can be used in vehicles, industries, boilers

8.6.6 Waste Plastic to Electricity

 Done using a double-tank combustor system:

1. Upper tank: Pyrolysis → converts solid plastic → gas

 2. Lower tank: Gas burns with oxidant → produces heat & steam

 Steam → Electricity

 System is self-sustaining

8.6.7 Advantages of Plastic Recycling

1. Environmentally friendly

2. Promotes green living

3. Saves resources, energy, and sometimes cost

8.6.8 Disadvantages of Plastic Recycling

1. Plastics take hundreds of years to degrade

2. Recycling needs time, money, and energy

3. High calorific value (like coal) – burning can be more energy-e icient in some cases