UK Political System (Geogr and demographic fearuture; Historical development of the state;
Political regime; electoral system; elections; Civil society; Political culture and ideology; Politcal
economy; Foreign relations)
Major Geographic and Demographic Features
(Since 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain (03-nations --- English, Scotts, and Welsh) and
Northern Ireland has been the formal name of the United Kingdom; Size=2/3 of Japan; Population=64M
(1/2 of Japan); Briton or British called to the citizens of UK; Multiethnic as the Scotts, Welsh and English
have distinct cultures and languages; Racially Homogenous (mostly Whites, but this is changing as
immigrants from its past colonies are increasing, making 13% of the popn); Location: separated from
continental Europe by English Channel; Impact of this separation: provided some protection from the
conflicts and turmoil that afflicted the rest of Europe; help explain its late adherence to the European
Union.
Historical Development of the State
1. (EARLY DEVELOPMENT: REPEATED INVASIONS FOR OVER A PERIOD OF ABOUT 1,500 YEARS.
Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes, and finally Normans invaded the British Isles, each leaving
important legacies.
For example, Anglo-Saxons left Language and Common Law;
Norman last invasion, occurred in 1066, they replaced the Germanic ruling class and imposed
central rule. Their legacy is Feudalism, which did create a system of mutual obligation---these
obligations made the foundation for the eventual limits on royal power (e.g. Magna Carta,
1215)::: The United Kingdom was fortunate to resolve relatively early in its historical development
certain conflicts that other states would experience later in the modern era (Henry VIII (1509–47)
brought England out of Catholic Church and make is protestant using Parliament to pass laws to this
effect).
2. EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN BRITISH STATE (UK had a more constrained monarchy, 3 reasons
for this: English Civil War undermined the king’s authority, the Glorious revolution strengthened the
position of the parliament; the Bill of Rights in 1689 institutionalized its political supremacy; the
crowing of Germanic speaking George-I in 1714, and his reliance on the cabinet especially PM)
3. The British Empire
Overseas expansion in 16th century and till 19th century. Dominant power militarily, commercially and
culturally; Empire ended in In post WWs scenario, Local resistance in many colonies, international
sentiment favoring self- determination for subject peoples, the cumulative costs of two World Wars, and
the burden of maintaining far- flung colonies; Today, the Commonwealth of 54 countries
4. The Industrial Revolution (1st industrial nation; industrialization helped support the expansion of its
empire; effects of Industrialization include: Urbanization, rise of prosperous and propertied middle
class demanding a stronger political voice--- leading to first step toward democracy.
5. Gradual Democratization ( the early weakening of King’s authority and strengthening of parliament
did little toward the cause of democratization as parliament originally represented the interests of
the B/elite as only wealthy could vote; Two factors helped in true democratization: Rise of Political
parties (Conservative Tories and Liberal Whigs) which cultivated support among the burgeoning
commercial class, and expansion of suffrage through the1832 Reform Act (it 2xed the size of British
electorate, though still excluding 90% of adult popn) This expansion continued over the next century
with Women having age 21 given the right to vote in 1928 age was reduced in 1969 to 18; Effect of
the expansion of suffrage: It forced the political parties to heed to the demands of the electorate for
additional services. It also helped in the rise of Labour Party, formed in 1900 as an outgrowth of the
trade union movement, had become by the end of World War I the main representative of the
working class and the primary beneficiary of expanded suffrage
By the 1920s, Labour largest center- left party and pushed for policies that would develop basic social
services for all citizens, or what we commonly call the welfare state.
The British workers who defended the United Kingdom so heroically during World War II returned from
that conflict with a new sense of entitlement, electing Labour to power in 1945. Armed with a
parliamentary majority, the Labour government quickly moved to implement a welfare state. This was
accompanied by the nationalization of a number of sectors of industry, such as coal, utilities, rail, and
health care.
6. Postwar collectivisit consensus: Conservatives support of the Labour party policies in the Post WW2
period.
7. 1970: Economy in crisis; rise of new breed of conservatives who blamed the crisis on the excesses of the
welfare state; this breed was typified by Margret Thatcher (became PM in 1979; She cut state spending on
social services, privatization was supported instead. Her government thus marked the end of the postwar
collectivist consensus.
8. The 1997 reelection of Labour party under a new label called the New Labour rejected some of the
Thatcher’s measures. Blair called his program the Third Way----centrist program from both Thatcher’s
hard- edged laissez- faire policies and Labour’s more traditional platform as staunch defender of an
elaborate welfare state.
New Labour held government for 13 years, balancing popular progressive social reforms with policies of
devolution and continued limits on social expenditures.
9. The 2010 parliamentary election resulted in a hung parliament (a nod to both Thatcher and Blair).
10. In the 2015 election, voters rewarded the Tories with an outright majority, signaling a conservative shift in
the electorate on policies from government spending to immigration. Although his party won the election
handily, Cameron struggled with controversial issues involving national identity and state sovereignty
both at home and abroad. (Scottish Independence referendum in 2014 (the referendum failed) and Brexit
referendum in 2016 which saw loss of support for the Cameron’s government. Theresa May formed govt.
2017 she called early elections but it resulted in a hung parliament.
11. POINTS DISCUSSED ARE: IN THE POST WWs PERIOD, LABOUR PARY DOMINATED THE POLITCAL SCENE
WITH ITS SOCIAL WELFARE POLICIES. HOWEVER, THE ECONOMIC CRISIS IN THE 1970’s LED TO THE
EMERGENCE OF CONSERVATIVE VOICE (DUBBED AS NEOLIBERALS). THATCHER WON AND ROLLED BACK
THE WELFARE POLICIES. SHE ENACTED LOWER TAXATION, DECREASE SOCIAL SPENDING BY THE
GOVERNEMENT, AND ENCOURAGED PRIVATE ENTERPRISE TO HAVE GREATER SHARE IN THE ECONOMY.
12. WITH THE RETURN OF THE LABOUR PARTY IN THE 1997 ELECTIONS, LABOUR TONY BLAIR BRANDED HIS
POLITICAL PROGRAMME AS THE THIRD WAY, WHICH IS A BALANCING ACT OF THATCHER’S LASSIZ FAIRE
AND THE WELFARE INCLINED POLICIES OF THE EARLY LABOUR PARTY.
Political Regime (the rules of the game governing the exercise of power)
Highly majoritarian features: The majority in Parliament has virtually unchecked power. (Fewer checks, few
judicial restraints, and no constitutionally sanctioned local authorities to dilute the power)
Only the historical traditions of democratic political culture and, while retaining membership in the European
Union, restrictions imposed by that body have checked the possibility of the British government abusing its
power
Political Institutions
THE CONSTITUTION
(Unwritten, consists of various acts of parliament, common law, European law, customs,
conventions and commentaries); downside of unwritten constitutions (alarms human rights
advocates); upside (unparalleled flexibility & responsiveness to the majority)
a. Blair’s Labour government (1997–2007) carried out piecemeal constitutional reforms that have proven
so significant in their effects that they have been compared to the Great Reform Act of 1832.
b. Likewise, concessions offered by Parliament to persuade Scottish voters to reject independence in
2014 and the government’s efforts to unwind Britain from the EU have also required significant
constitutional reforms.
What makes the United Kingdom’s constitution particularly unusual is that it also consists of various acts of
Parliament, judicial decisions, customs, and traditions.
Statute law, or Acts of Parliament that override common law and have the effect of
constitutional law. They include laws that outline the relative powers of the two
houses of Parliament.
Common law, or judgments handed down over time by British courts. Among the
more significant are those dealing with freedom of expression and the sovereignty of
Parliament.
European law, since Britain is subject to laws adopted by the EU, which override
British laws where the two confl ict, in those policy areas where the EU has primary
authority. These include trade, agriculture, social
issues, and the environment.
Customs and conventions that do not have the force of law but have been
followed for so long that they are regarded as binding. For example, there are no laws
stating that the prime minister and cabinet should come out of the majority party in
Parliament; this is simply a convention.
Commentaries written by constitutional experts such as Walter Bagehot and Albert
Venn Dicey (author in 1885 of The Law of the Constitution)
THE CROWN
(One of the branches of the govt; expected to be a neutral symbol of history, stability, tradition,
and national identity.; Except for a brief spell between 1649 and 1660, when a republic was
proclaimed, Britain since the 10th century has been a monarchy Monarchy has survived in UK
because of the Monarch readiness to act constitutionally; The reserve powers the Monarch
are:calling new elections; the power of veto; Conferring with the prime minister; Forming a
government; Address to Parliament; Symbol of the state.
Except for a brief spell between 1649 and 1660, when a republic was proclaimed, Britain since the 10th
century has been a monarchy. British kings and queens once had a virtual monopoly on political power but
began giving it up with the Magna Carta, and the monarch is now little more than a ceremonial head of state,
expected to be a neutral symbol of history, stability, tradition, and national identity. It is often said that the
monarch reigns but does not rule. The present monarch—Queen Elizabeth II—is limited to the following so-
called reserve powers.
1. Calling new elections.
2. The power of veto.
3. Conferring with the prime minister.
4. Forming a government.
5. Address to Parliament.
6. Symbol of the state.
The Branches of Government
THE PRIME MINISTER (Parliament is supreme by the real power is concentrated in PM and cabinet
(together constitutes govt).
PM is head of the govt, member of the parliament, head of the largest party in lower house.
Probably most powerful head of the govt of any contemporary democracy: 3 reasons: expects his
parliamentary majority to approve all of his legislation; strong party discipline in UK; Unwritten
constitution. His powers checked in Coalition govt; and vote of no confidence.
No. of roles: must maintain the support of their fellow MPs; must direct the activity of the cabinet
and smooth over differences among cabinet members; expected to guide her party to victory in
general elections; expected to provide national leadership; is also diplomat; the prime minister
sets the national political agenda, oversees the military, appoints ambassadors,
manages crises, leads his or her party, and represents Britain overseas. All these powers
becomes more salient given the absence of any check from other branches of the govt.
Who could become PM? seasoned politician: political outsider stands no chance.
Who Could be PM? No space for newcomer. Seasoned political veterans with, on average, more than two
decades of experience in the House of Commons. Usually outstanding debaters, effective communicators, and
skilled negotiator. Those aspiring to this title must move up the ranks of the party before gaining the highest
office.
THE CABINET
(Cabinets evolved out of the group of experts who originally advised Britain’s monarchs; 20
members aka ministers forms cabinet, all must be MPs; usually comes form the LH; PM appoints
leading party officials to the top cabinet positions; each cabinet minister heads govt department,
are answerable to the parliament regarding its working); collective responsibility. (even when
individual cabinet ministers oppose a given policy, the entire cabinet must appear unified and take
responsibility for the policy. Cabinet ministers who cannot support a decision must resign and
return to the legislature e.g three members of Blair’s cabinet resigned in 2003 over opposition to
the war in Iraq,)
THE LEGISLATURE
(most powerful legislature due to unwritten constitution; lack of constitutional constraints LH
stands tall on the UH)
The House of Commons: (HC or LH 650 members, 5 years term, individual legislator less powerful due to
party discipline; MPs more accessible as compared to US; Tasks include: debating issues, participating in
parliamentary committees, vote on legislations proposed by the govt; has the power to remove PM through
no confidence vote; propose legislative measures; political parties, not individual members, are what matter
due to strict party discipline). Despite the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy, the legislature in the United
Kingdom mostly deliberates, ratifies, and scrutinizes policies that are proposed by the executive. The
government is usually able to impose its will on its majority in the House of Commons. MPs have
traditionally voted with their parties more than 90 percent of the time, though both the coalition government
(2010–15) and the current Conservative minority government have been predictably less disciplined.
House of Lords: (It was considered the upper house not only because it represented the top aristocracy but
also because it was at the time considered the more powerful of the two chambers; today stands powerless
as a result of gradual democratization; Membership: 800 member; appointment 2 ways: Life peers
(distinguished citizens appointed for life by Crown upon recommendation by PM, dozen church members also
makes the list, dozen law lords aka legal experts) & hereditary peers (controversial, members of the
aristocracy who till 1999 labor reforms could bequeath their seat. Powers: no veto power; historically acted as
court of the last appeal but 2009 establishment of Supreme has taken away that power. Currently voices for
further reforming this house)
THE JUDICIARY
(minor role as compared to other democratic countries; no tradition of judicial review; Who are
members? Currently appointed by Lord Chancellor from the law lords of the Upper House. Their
replacement, these will be done by commission. Judiciary powers have increased recently: Govt
seeking judiciary to settle political matters; UK’s embrace of International Law such as European
Convention on Human Rights 1998)
The Electoral System
(SMD based on Plurality voting; constituency based on popn; average 68000 voters per
constituency; constituency revised q5 to 7 years by a govt commission)
Elections
(general election for house of commons; turnover 60 to 70%; campaigns: short affairs lasting less
than a month; voter has simple choice: which party to vote? Voters tend to focus on differences
b/w parties)
Civil Society
(UK houses various groups articulating special interests; interest groups influence far less prevalent that
lobbying in the US as B/parties are more highly disciplined; interest group must focus their attention on the
party leadership and on the govt bureaucracies; How they influence Public Policy? They participate in quangos
(quasi- autonomous nongovernmental organizations).: policy advisory boards or other entities appointed or
approved by the government that bring government officials and affected interest groups together to help
develop policy; First established in the 1960s and 1970s, quangos represent a move toward a neocorporatist
model of public policy making, in which government and interest groups work together to develop policy;
Some important Interest groups: Trade Union Congress, the Confederation of British Industry (CBI)
Society
(Multiethnic, Multinational; religious divisions; linguistics division; Class based division most prominent;
. Historically, political parties and many key policy debates have reflected class differences, not
differences of ethnicity, region, or religion, as is often the case in other states; Class Identity (the most
prominent one as compared to ethnic or religious identity); Weakening: social reforms of the twentieth
century did much to ease huge income disparities; still social mobility has not yet erased the perception
to two tier society b/w upper class and a working class; legacies: education system; perpetuation of class
differences: self-identification with either of the classes; Ethnic and National Identity (religious,
linguistic, and cultural divisions do exist and in some cases are becoming more significant, and even
volatile; Religion remains a source of conflict in Northern Ireland; Elsewhere, however, new divisions are
emerging immigrants arrival is on the increase )
Regional Identities: In addition to ethnic groups, the United Kingdom also comprises a number of national
groups, of four nations— England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland— with substantial cultural and
political differences among them. Most UK citizens first identify themselves not as British but as belonging
to one of these four nationalities.
Long- standing yearning for greater national autonomy has gained increasing political
significance since the 1960s. Local nationalist parties including the Scottish National Party and the
Welsh Plaid Cymru, with Labour Party support, successfully advocated for devolution: turning over
some central- governmental powers to the regions. Tony Blair’s Labour government delivered on
its campaign promise of devolution in 1999 with the establishment of local legislatures for
Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Some feared that rather than pacify nationalist
tendencies, devolution would contribute to the eventual breakup of the country, most notably
with an independent Scotland.
EU: While persistent regional loyalties and the localization of government have challenged the British
national identity, so, too, have the United Kingdom’s growing economic and cultural integration with
Europe over the past few decades and, at the same time, its growing ambivalence about this dependence
and decision to weaken those ties by exiting the EU. Although nearly half of British voters called for retaining
membership in the Union, it is safe to say that virtually all Britons remain generally very loyal to the Crown
and to the notion of a sovereign British people.
Ideology and Political Culture
(Regarding the goals of politics : Classical liberalism; Social democratic values in the post wars
period; Economic decline during the 1970s swung the pendulum back toward personal freedom,
which spurned consensus politics, rejected socialist redistributive policies, and advocated
privatization ; today reconciling of these both values---typified by the Third Way)
Political Culture: (1: Pragmatism and tolerance: be less concerned with adhering to overarching ideological
principles and more willing to tinker gradually with a particular political [Link]: acc to scholar it is
due to incremental and gradual tinkering with political problems in its history instead of abrupt changes;
Tolerance: Political radicalism, on either the left or the right, is rare in the United Kingdom. Virtually all
political actors embrace the willingness to seek evolutionary, not revolutionary, change. This pragmatism is
bolstered by a classical liberal tolerance for opposing viewpoints, a strong sense of fair play, and a generally
high level of consensus on the political rules of the game.
Political Economy
(liberal economic model; yet undergone a no. of shifts over the past decades)
The United Kingdom is noteworthy for its contribution to the liberal economic model. Indeed, most political
analysts would trace classical liberalism itself to the United Kingdom, where philosophers such as John
Locke spoke of the inalienable rights of “life, liberty and estate,” setting the stage for such political
innovations as the U.S. Declaration of Independence.
Yet liberalism in the United Kingdom has undergone a number of shifts over the past decades, from the
greater emphasis on social- democratic values after World War II to the neoliberalism under Margaret
Thatcher, which has been softened but largely continued in subsequent governments.
If there is a common theme in the UK economy in the decades following the end of World War II, it is decline.
Causes:
1. The downside of early industrialization
2. The burden of Empire
3. Finally, many political analysts have argued that the collectivist consensus not only blocked meaningful
economic reform in the United Kingdom for much of the postwar era but also focused the country on
social expenditures while causing it to ignore the simultaneous need to modernize its economy.
Where does this leave the UK economy in the new century? (Postindustrial economy; service economy (3/4 th
quarter of country’s wealth); Britain’s budget deficit after 2008 financial crisis; financial inequality b/w
prosperous south and blue collar north)
Finally, there is the issue of the United Kingdom’s economic relationship with the outside world. Say EU.
Half of its trade goes to other EU member states.
Foreign Relations and the World
(Major player in world affairs but struggles to define its place and role in a post-imperial and
post-Cold war world; central difficulty lies in the UK’s self-identity; the British have long seen
themselves as separate from continental Europe; rather than identifying with the continental Europe,
the United Kingdom built its identity around its empire, orienting itself toward the Atlantic;
remains willing to defend its interests militarily (Falkland War with Argentine); Good relationship
with US; stayed tuned with EU on Palestine issue .
