Notes 2 : Cellular transport, Cellular signalling, Cell division

Now that you all are aware of the different cellular organelles, let’s dive into the world
where cells are communicating with each other (Remember they don’t have a mouth!!).
To accomplish this, the cells transport chemicals (fluids or solids like glucose or proteins
or charged particles like ions) from one place to another or from one cell to another, into
the cell or out of the cell.
So, the next question is what is cellular transport? What are its types?
Cellular transport is the movement of substances in and out of a cell across the cell
membrane. The plasma membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell, and it's
highly selective about what it allows through. Some molecules like gases can easily
diffuse in and out of cell membrane. Water molecules are partially allowed, followed by
glucose and proteins. Charged particles or ions are not allowed without special proteins
called transporters.
There are two main types of cellular transport:
• Passive transport
This type of transport doesn't require energy and moves substances from a higher
concentration to a lower concentration. For example, diffusion is a type of passive
transport that moves substances from a high concentration area to a low concentration
area.
Passive transport can also be divided into simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
osmosis.
Simple diffusion: The process of simple exchange or transport of molecules from higher
to lower concentration.
Example: Exchange of oxygen and carbon di-oxide in alveolar cells and blood. The simple
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs is a process that allows the body to
exchange oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move freely
between the alveoli and the bloodstream through the alveolar-capillary
membrane. Oxygen molecules attach to red blood cells and travel to the heart. Carbon
dioxide molecules are exhaled from the body when a person breathes out.

Facilitated diffusion: A type of passive transport that allows molecules to move down
their concentration gradient without requiring energy from the cell in presence of specific
membrane proteins.
Example: Aquaporins are channel proteins that create pores in the cell membrane that
allow water molecules to pass through in a single file. Aquaporins are selective, only
allowing water molecules to pass through while preventing ions and other solutes.

Osmosis: Osmosis is the process of water molecules moving through a semipermeable

membrane from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water
potential. This process continues until the concentration of solute on both sides of the
membrane is the same.

• Active transport
Active transport is the process of moving molecules or ions across a cell membrane from
a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. This process requires
energy, and it's essential for many physiological processes, like hormone secretion,
nutrient uptake, and nerve impulse transmission.
 Examples:
• Sodium-potassium pump: Uses ATP to pump sodium ions out of the cell and
potassium ions in, which maintains a concentration gradient that's important for
cellular function

• Na+-Ca2+ antiporter: Transports Na+ into the cell and Ca2+ out

• Na+-H+ exchange protein: Regulates intracellular pH by transporting Na+ into the

cell and H+ out

BULK TRANSPORT: It is the process of active cellular extrusion and intake of materials
that cannot pass through the plasma membrane.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are two main ways cells transport large particles and
molecules, while phagocytosis and pinocytosis are two types of endocytosis.

Bulk Transport

Exocystosis Endocytosis

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis

• Endocytosis: The process of bringing substances from outside the cell into the
cell, by engulfing them with the cell membrane. There are two types of
endocytosis:
• Phagocytosis: Also known as cellular eating, this process involves the
plasma membrane engulfing solid materials, such as bacteria or food
particles. Macrophages and neutrophils are types of white blood cells that
use phagocytosis to eliminate microorganisms from infected tissues.
• Pinocytosis: Also known as cellular drinking, this process involves the
plasma membrane folding inward to form a channel that allows dissolved
substances, such as water, to enter the cell. Pinocytosis is non-specific,
meaning it doesn't have a preference for the substances it brings into the
cell.
• Exocytosis : The process of releasing substances from inside the cell to the
outside, by fusing vesicles with the plasma membrane. Exocytosis is often used
to secrete large molecules, such as proteins and hormones, and to deliver
membrane proteins to the cell surface.
Cell Signaling
So, we now know what the different types of transport are, what mechanism a cell
employs to carry out a particular chemical transport. Now, in this topic, we will be
learning how these transported chemicals actually help the cells to communicate or
signal.
Few terminologies:
✓ Sender or sending cell: Cell which releases the chemical or signal or molecule
✓ Ligand: the chemical or ions which are released by the sending/ sender cell. This
is the signal. Different types of molecules can serve as signaling molecules .
Proteins (ex: insulin), Lipids (ex: testosterone, cortisol), Amino acid metabolites
(ex: histamine, dopamine)
✓ Receiving cell or target cell: The cell meant to receive the ligand or the signal.
Now, another question that pops into our mind is out of billions of cells in our body, why
few cells are only targets for a particular ligand?
Let’s take the example of the hormone Thyroxin. Thyroxin is released by thyroid gland
which is situated in our neck/throat. This hormone helps in our food metabolism, food
digestion. Now, since hormones are released into our blood, the hormone travels all over
the body but targets only our stomach and small intestine cells. This can happen because
specific proteins that can bind with this thyroxin molecule is present only in our stomach
and small intestine cells
So the next key word is
✓ Receptor : Protein molecules present on target cells membrane that can bind only
to a specific ligand.

Okay terminologies explained. Next question is what are the different signals a cell
receives?
Cell signalling is a fundamental property of all cellular life, and it involves the
interaction between a cell, other cells, and its environment. Signals can be
chemical or physical, and they are received by receptors, which then trigger a
response. Cell signalling controls many aspects of cell life, including cell division,
growth, differentiation, and cell death. Here is some information about cell
signalling for these processes:
• Cell division: Mitogens stimulate cell division by activating G1-Cdk and G1/S-Cdk
activities. Growth factors are ligands that promote cell growth by binding to cell-
surface receptors.

• Cell growth: Extracellular growth factors stimulate cell growth.

• Cell differentiation: The Sevenless protein-tyrosine kinase is activated by direct

cell-cell interaction between R8 and a precursor cell. This activates the ERK MAP
kinase pathway, which phosphorylates transcription factors that mediate R7
differentiation.

• Cell death: Extracellular survival factors suppress apoptosis, which is the process
of programmed cell death.

• Cell-specific functions: Specific signalling pathways control specialized cell-

specific functions such as neurotransmission, pathogen-sensing, phagocytosis,
and antigen-presentation
Signalling Process: Cell signalling is important for cells to grow and function
normally. The study of signalling pathways is important for understanding cellular and
molecular processes and can help explain diseases and develop new treatments. Cell
signalling is the process by which cells respond to substances outside of them, and it's
also known as signal transduction. Here's a simple explanation of the cell signalling
process:

• Signal recognition: A cell detects a signalling molecule from the outside of the
cell. A signal is detected when the ligand binds to a receptor protein on the surface
of the cell or inside the cell. Membrane receptors function by binding the signal
molecule (ligand) and causing the production of a second signal (also known as a
second messenger) that then causes a cellular response. These types of
receptors transmit information from the extracellular environment to the inside of
the cell by changing shape or by joining with another protein once a specific ligand
binds to it. Intracellular receptors are found inside the cell, either in the
 cytopolasm or in the nucleus of the target cell (the cell receiving the signal).
Chemical messengers that are hydrophobic or very small (steroid hormones for
example) can pass through the plasma membrane without assistance and bind
these intracellular receptors. Once bound and activated by the signal molecule,
the activated receptor can initiate a cellular response, such as a change in gene
expression.

• Transduction: When the signalling molecule binds with the receptor, it changes
the receptor protein in some way. This change initiates the process of
transduction. Signal transduction is usually a pathway of several steps. Each relay
molecule in the signal transduction pathway changes the next molecule in the
pathway. Since signalling systems need to be responsive to small concentrations
of chemical signals and act quickly, cells often use a multi-step pathway that
transmits the signal quickly, while amplifying the signal to numerous molecules at
each step. Small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions called second
messengers (the ligand that binds the receptor is the first messenger) can also
relay signals received by receptors on the cell surface to target molecules in the
cytoplasm or the nucleus. Examples of second messengers include cyclic AMP
(cAMP) and calcium ions.

• Response: The cell changes its behaviour in some way, such as growth, motility,
or gene expression. Cell signalling ultimately leads to the regulation of one or
more cellular activities. Regulation of gene expression (turning transcription of
specific genes on or off) is a common outcome of cell signalling. A signalling
pathway may also regulate the activity of a protein, for example opening or closing
an ion channel in the plasma membrane or promoting a change in cell metabolism
such as catalysing the breakdown of glycogen. Signalling pathways can also lead
to important cellular events such as cell division or apoptosis (programmed cell
death).
What is cell cycle and Cell division?
The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell as it grows and divides, and
cell division is the process by which a cell splits into two daughter cells. The cell cycle is
a cycle, not a linear pathway, because the daughter cells can start the process again after
each cycle.
The cell cycle has two main phases: interphase and the M phase. Interphase is when the
cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division. The M phase includes
mitosis and cytokinesis, which is when the cell divides into two daughter cells.
But before going into the details of interphase and M phase, let’s understand DNA and
how they are packaged into chromosomes.
DNA is packaged in cells by wrapping it around proteins called histones to form thread-
like structures called chromosomes. This process is similar to packing 24 miles of fine
thread into a tennis ball.
Here's how DNA is packaged:
1. Nucleosomes: DNA is wrapped around eight histone proteins, forming a
nucleosome.
2. Chromatin fiber: Nucleosomes fold up to form a 30-nanometer chromatin fiber.
3. Chromatid: The chromatin fiber is compressed and folded to form a 250-
nanometer-wide fiber, which is tightly coiled into the chromatid of a
chromosome.
The packaging of DNA allows it to be easily accessed by enzymes that replicate, repair,
and use it to produce proteins.

Sister chromatids are identical copies of a chromosome that are joined by a centromere,
while non-sister chromatids are chromatids from different chromosomes in a
homologous pair:

Sister chromatids Non-sister chromatids

Definition Identical copies of a chromosome Chromatids from different

created by DNA replication chromosomes in a homologous pair

Formation Created during the synthesis phase One from the mother (maternal) and
of interphase one from the father (paternal)
Separation Separated during mitosis or meiosis Exchange genetic material during
II prophase I of meiosis

Sister chromatids are joined at the centromere, a constricted region of the

chromosome. During cell division, spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart to
opposite sides of the cell, and the cell divides into two daughter cells with identical DNA

Interphase:
Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle where a cell grows, replicates DNA, and prepares
for mitosis. It's divided into three phases: G1, S, and G2:
• G1 (gap) phase: The cell grows, replicates organelles, and prepares to synthesize
DNA.
• S (synthetic) phase: DNA is replicated.
• G2 (gap) phase: The cell prepares for mitosis.

Interphase is the metabolic phase of the cell, where it obtains and metabolizes nutrients,
synthesizes proteins, and processes signals. A common misconception is that
interphase is the first stage of mitosis, but prophase is actually the first stage of mitosis.
Mitosis is a process that allows a cell to divide into two identical daughter cells. It's a key
part of the cell cycle and is important for growth, development, and replacing old or
damaged cells.

Here are the main steps of mitosis:

• Interphase: The cell copies its DNA and prepares for mitosis.

• Prophase: The first stage of mitosis, where the chromosomes condense and
attach to spindle fibers.
 • Prometaphase: Microtubules pull the chromosomes in opposite directions, but
they don't break apart because they're still attached at the centromere.

• Metaphase: The chromosomes align at the cell's equator.

• Anaphase: The spindle microtubules pull the chromosomes apart toward

opposite poles of the cell.

• Telophase: Each set of chromosomes is surrounded by a nuclear membrane, and

the cell splits into two daughter cells.

Mitosis is different from meiosis, another type of cell division that produces sperm and
egg cells. Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half, while mitosis maintains
the total number of chromosomes.

What is meiosis or reduction division:

Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces sex cells, or gametes, in sexually
reproducing organisms. Meiosis is a two-stage process that reduces the number of
chromosomes in a cell by half, so that the resulting gametes have a single set of
chromosomes.

Here's some more information about meiosis:

• Stages: Meiosis has two stages meiosis 1 and meiosis 2, each with multiple
phases.

• Daughter cells: Meiosis produces four daughter cells, which are haploid, meaning
they have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

• Gametes: The daughter cells produced by meiosis are the gametes, or sex cells,
that unite during fertilization. In females, the gamete is the egg, and in males, it's
the sperm.
Meiosis 1:
✓ Meiosis I, the first meiotic division, begins with prophase I. During prophase I, the
complex of DNA and protein known as chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes. The pairs of replicated chromosomes are known as sister
chromatids, and they remain joined at a central point called the centromere. A
 large structure called the meiotic spindle also forms from long proteins called
microtubules on each side, or pole, of the cell.
✓ Between prophase I and metaphase I, the pairs of homologous chromosome form
tetrads. Within the tetrad, any pair of chromatid arms can overlap and fuse in a
process called crossing-over or recombination. Recombination is a process that
breaks, recombines and rejoins sections of DNA to produce new combinations of
genes. In metaphase I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes align on either side
of the equatorial plate.

✓ Then, in anaphase I, the spindle fibers contract and pull the homologous pairs,
each with two chromatids, away from each other and toward each pole of the cell.
✓ During telophase I, the chromosomes are enclosed in nuclei.
✓ The cell now undergoes a process called cytokinesis that divides the cytoplasm of
the original cell into two daughter cells. Each daughter cell is haploid and has only
one set of chromosomes, or half the total number of chromosomes of the original
cell.

Meiosis 2:
Meiosis II is a mitotic division of each of the haploid cells produced in meiosis I.
✓ During prophase II, the chromosomes condense, and a new set of spindle fibers
forms. The chromosomes begin moving toward the equator of the cell.
✓ During metaphase II, the centromeres of the paired chromatids align along the
equatorial plate in both cells.
 ✓ Then in anaphase II, the chromosomes separate at the centromeres. The spindle
fibers pull the separated chromosomes toward each pole of the cell.
✓ Finally, during telophase II, the chromosomes are enclosed in nuclear
membranes.
✓ Cytokinesis follows, dividing the cytoplasm of the two cells. At the conclusion of
meiosis, there are four haploid daughter cells that go on to develop into either
sperm or egg cells.

Key points between meiosis 1 and meiosis 2:

Meiosis I and meiosis II are two stages of meiosis, a process that produces sex cells, or
gametes:
• Meiosis I
This stage begins with one diploid parent cell and ends with two haploid daughter
cells. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and then separate into
different daughter cells. Each daughter cell contains half the number of chromosomes
as the parent cell.
• Meiosis II
This stage begins with two haploid parent cells and ends with four haploid daughter
cells. Meiosis II is similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids separate and move into
different daughter cells.

Here are some other differences between meiosis I and meiosis II:

• Number of stages
Meiosis I has four stages: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. Meiosis
II also has four stages: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.

• Chromosomal crossover
Chromosomal crossover occurs during meiosis I, leading to genetic recombination. No
chromosomal crossover occurs during meiosis II.