0

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE

RESMI M
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR-PHYSICS, BASIC SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 1

MODULE -II
INTERFERENCE

The light distribution resulting from the superposition of waves is interference. The
Phenomenon of interference of light has proved the validity of the wave theory of light.
Thomas Young Successfully demonstrated his experiment on interference of light in 1802.
When light from a single Source travel through a region, there will be more or less
uniform intensity of illumination. But when light from two or more sources with same
amplitude, same frequency (wavelength), same velocity and same phase or constant
phase or constant phase difference travels through the same region, there will be
modification in the distribution of intensity due to superposition. This modification is
called interference. When two or more waves superimpose, there will be positions of
maximum and minimum intensities. If the resultant intensity is greater than the intensities due
to individual waves, the interference produced at these points is called constructive
interference. At certain points of the medium resultant intensity is less than the intensities due
to the individual waves, the interference produced at these points is called destructive
interference. Thus, interferce produces alternate dark and bright regions in the medium.

Principle of superposition
If two or more light waves travel over a continuous medium, each wave produces its
own displacement at any point of the medium independent of the other. The resultant
displacement at any point is the vector sum of the displacements due to each wave. This is the
principle of superposition of waves which forms the basis of interference.
Let Y1, Y2, Y3---- Yn be the displacement due to the waves. Then the resultant
displacement due to the waves. Then the resultant displacement Y due to the superposition of
waves is, Y=Y1+Y2+Y3+ ----Yn

Coherent Sources

To produce interference the two sources must give out light waves of 1) Same
amplitude 2)same wavelength (frequency) 3) Same phase or constant phase difference. Such
Sources are called Coherent Sources.

Two independent sources can never be mutually coherent. A source of light

consists of a number of atoms and each atom consists of a central nucleus around which
electrons revolve in various definite orbits. In an excited state an electron occupies higher

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 2

energy orbit and so the atom becomes unstable. The election spontaneously falls back to the
inner orbit within 10-8s and in doing so will emit light pulses. The emission of light pulses
from various atoms is random and there is no constant phase relationship between two
pulses. So two independent sources can never be coherent.

Conditions of interference

1. The two sources must be narrow.

2. The two sources must have equal amplitude and same frequency.
3. The two Sources must be of equal intensity.
4. The two Sources must be monochromatic.
5. The light from two sources must have either zero or constant phase difference.
6. The light from two Sources must be propagated along the same direction.
7. Separation between the two Sources must be as small as possible.

Types of interference

The phenomenon of interference is divided into two types based on the mode of production
of interference.

1) Interference by division of wavefront

The incident wavefront is divided into two parts and making use of the principle of
reflection or refraction, the two parts of the wavefront are made to combine to produce
interference fringes. Young’s double – slit and Fresnel's biprism are examples of this type. In
Young’s double slit experiment we use two narrow slits to isolate beams from separate
portions of the primary wavefront. In Fresnel’s biprism the phenomenon of refraction is used
to produce interference. Here two virtual images of the source act as coherent sources.

2) Interference by division of amplitude

The amplitude or intensity of the incident light is divided into two parts either by reflection
or refraction. These light waves with divided amplitude reinforce after travelling different
distances and produce interference. Examples are Newton's rings, air wedge, colour in thin
films.
optical path
In order to compare light paths in different media, we use optical path. Optical path
‘dop’ equivalent to a distance ‘d’ in a medium of refractive index µ is
dop=µd

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 3

[optical path = μ x geometrical path ]

The quantity dop is the distance travelled by light in vacuum for a time to cover the distance d in the
medium
If ‘t’ is the time taken by the light to cover a distance ‘d’ in a medium having velocity of light v, then
d = vt
The distance corresponding to this in vacuum is dop= ct
dop / d = ct / vt = c/v = μ

Interference in thin films

We are familiar with beautiful colours on an oil slick or by cracks in a piece of glass. The
light reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of a thin film interferes and interference
patterns are produced. The transmitted rays emerging from the upper and lower sides of the
film also interfere and produce interference patterns.

Interference due to reflected light from a thin film

Let us consider a transparent film of uniform thickness ’t’ bounded by two parallel
surfaces. Let the refractive index of the material be ‘µ’. The film is surrounded by a common
medium, say oil on the both sides. A plane monochromatic light wave is incident on the
upper surface of the film.

Let SA represents one of the incident rays. It is partially reflected along AH and major
portion is transmitted into the film, along AB. From the lower surface also partial reflection
takes place along BC and finally the reflected rays emerges out along CM. Now, we can
calculate optical path difference between the rays reflected from the top and bottom surfaces
of the thin film, ie., between the rays AL and CM. A normal CH can be drawn on the line
AL.
From the points ‘C’ and ‘H’ onwards the rays HL and CM travel equal distances, the path
difference between reflected rays is equal to (AB+BC)-AH -----(1)
The optical path difference =(AB+BC) in film – AH in air
= µ (AB+BC) -AH

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 4

=2 µAB-AH ------(2)
𝐴𝐻
In Δ ACH, Sini = 𝐴𝐶
AH=AC sini ----(3)

𝐴𝐶 𝐼 𝐴𝐶 𝐼
In Δ ABCI, tanr = 𝐵𝐶 𝐼 = 𝑡

ACI = t.tanr

AH =2.t. Sini. Tan r -----(4)

𝐶 𝐼𝐵 𝑡
In Δ ABCI, Cos r = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 -----(5)
𝐵𝐴
AB=BC, Since Δ ABC is a isosceles triangle. Optical path difference, after substituting (4)
2𝜇𝑡
and (5) in (2), =𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 - 2.t.tan r.Sin i
2𝜇𝑡
=𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 - 2.t.tan r.Sin i

2𝜇𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟
=𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 - 2.t. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 . Sin i
2𝜇𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖
=𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 - 2.t. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 . µ Sin r , Since 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟= µ.
2𝜇𝑡
=𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 (1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑟)
=2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 -----(6)

From electromagnetic theory, when light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser
medium, the phase change occurs here. The reflected ray AL is reflected from an optically
𝜆
denser medium and therefore AL is displaced through . So the path difference between the
2
𝜆
reflected rays is 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 - 2 .
1) The condition for constructive interference is
path difference equal to nλ
𝜆
ie, 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 -2 = nλ -----(7)

𝜆
For bright band, 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =(2n+1)2 , n=0,1,2,3..... -----(8)

𝜆
2) The condition for destructive interference is path difference is equal to (2n+1)2
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 -2 =(2n+1)2

2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =(n+1)𝜆 , n=0,1,2,3.....

Since (n+1) is also an integer, we denote (n+1) by n.
So for dark band formation, 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =n𝜆 , n=1,2,3..... -----(9)

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 5

Colour in thin films

when sunlight falls on soap bubble, different colours are seen. A thin film viewed with white
light shows brilliant colours. For xamples, Oil slick on road, pigeon’s neck, peacock feather
etc. in sunlight.

This can explained on the basis of equation 9 and 8. The portion of the film which satisfies
the condition for destructive interference will be dark . 𝐹or example, if red satisfies this
condition, the spectrum will be devoid of red. A combination of other colours (VIBGYO)
will be seen at that point. Also, in the case of oil film, varying colours are seen since ‘t’ and
‘r’ vary with time.

Wedge shape films – Air Wedge

A wedge shaped film is constructed using two glass plates with one end of two glass
plates are placed in contact and the other end separated by a spacer of thickness ‘t’. The
spacer can be a piece of paper, a thin wire etc., so that a thin film of varying thickness is
formed between the two glass plates. The interference take place between the light reflected
from the upper and lower surfaces of the film. The pattern obtained consists of straight
alternate bright and dark bands of equal thickness. let Xn represents the position of nth dark
band from O.

𝑡
From figure, we get tanθ =𝑥
𝑛
𝑡
When θ is small, θ=𝑥
𝑛
Or t=θ. 𝑥𝑛
substituting the values of t in equation 8 which is the condition for darkness in thin film
interference.
We get 2µθ𝑥𝑛 =nλ
𝑛𝜆
Or 𝑥𝑛 = 2µ𝜃
let xn+m represents the position of (n+m)th dark fringe,
(𝑛+𝑚)𝜆
𝑥𝑛+1 = ------(10)
2µ𝜃
𝜆
𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 = 2µ𝜃 ------(11)
what we measure in the experiment is this difference. If n and n+1 represent adjacent fringes,
then the above difference is bandwidth β.

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 6

𝜆
𝛽 = 2µ𝜃
For air film , µ=1
𝜆
𝛽 = 2𝜃 ------(12)
As the quantities on the right side of the above equation are all constants, β is constant for a
given wedge angle θ. It means the interference fringes are equidistant from one another. Also
the fringes are straight, of equal thickness and parallel.
Applications of air wedge
1) To find the diameter of a thin wire
Let a wire of diameter d is used as the spacer in air wedge experiment. Using the same
experimental arrangement, we can observe bright and dark fringes through a travelling
microscope.
Experimental setup

𝑑
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝐿
𝑑 𝜆
𝜃 = 𝐿 =2𝛽

𝜆𝐿
𝑑=
2𝛽

β can be measured using a travelling microscope, thus the diameter of the wire can be
calculated.

2) To check the optical planeness of surfaces

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M
 7

Air wedge experiment can be used to test the optical planeness of surfaces. The
surface to be tested is used as one of the plates in air wedge experiment. The other will be a
standard plane surface. If the surface is optically plane, the straight fringes of equal thickness
are observed. If the fringes are non uniform and distorted the given surface is not optically
plane. A surface is said to be optically plane if it is producing fringes which are parallel,
straight and equidistant. If the fringes are not of equal thickness, it means the surfaces are not
plane. Then the surface is polished and the process is repeated. When the fringes observed
are equal width, it means that the surface is plane.

Newton's rings by reflected light

This is an arrangement for producing interference pattern. In this, interference pattern

is obtained in the form of rings.

Experimental arrangement

A Plano convex lens L is placed on the surface of a plane glass plate. A thin air film
is formed between the curved surface of the lens and the surface of the glass plate. Light
reflected from the curved surface of the lens and from the surface of the glass plate interfere
to produce interference pattern. The thickness of the film is zero at the point of contact at O
and increases rapidly outwards. The thickness of the air film will be constant over a circle
and the pattern consists of concentric bright and dark rings as shown in figure. The rings are
called the Newton's rings. From the interference pattern it may be noted that the center spot
is dark, the thickness of the film is zero at O and there will be an effective path difference of
𝜆
2
between the interfering waves at the point O and this favours destructive interference. Ie.,
why the central spot is dark in Newton's rings. As the thickness of the film increases
depending on the condition, alternate bright and dark rings are formed.

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 8

Radius of the nth ring

Let rn be the radius of the nth dark ring. R, the radius of curvature of the plano convex
lens, and 𝜆 the wavelength of light used. The condition for minimum intensity in thin film
interference is given as
2𝜇𝑡cos𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 -----(1)

since light is incident on the film almost normally cosr=1 and for air film 𝜇 = 1

Hence 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 -----(2)
From above figure consider ΔABC
𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 9

𝑅 2 = 𝑟𝑛2 + (𝑅 − 1)2
𝑅 2 = 𝑟𝑛2 + 𝑅 2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑡 2
Neglecting t2
2𝑅𝑡 = 𝑟𝑛2
𝑟𝑛2
= 𝑡 -----(3)
2𝑅
𝑟𝑛2
2 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝑅
𝑟𝑛 = √𝑅𝑛𝜆, n=1,2,3.... ----(4)
th
Similarly, for n bright ring,

𝜆
𝑟𝑛 = √𝑅(2𝑛 + 1) 2 n=0,1,2,3.... ------(5)
Hence n is the order of the ring.

Determination of wavelength of light

Let Dn and Dn+k are the diameters of the nth and (n+k)th dark rings respectively.
Then,

𝐷𝑛2 = 4R𝑛𝜆 -----(6)

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑘 = 4𝑅(𝑛 + 𝑘)𝜆 -------(7)
𝐷𝑛2+𝑘 −𝐷𝑛2
𝜆= --------(8)
4𝑘𝑅
Newton's rings are observed directly through the travelling microscope T and
measurements of the diameter of the nth and (n + k)th dark rings are made. Substituting these
values of the diameters in equation 8, the wavelength of the light used can be calculated.

Newton's rings with liquid film

If a liquid of refractive index µ is introduced between the lens and the glass plate, the optical
path difference becomes 2µt. Let d(n+k) and dn be the diameters of nth and (n+k)th dark rings,
respectively.
Then,

2𝑢𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 -----(9)
𝑛 𝑟2
𝑡 = 2𝑅 ----(Eqn.3)
𝑛 𝑟2
Sub. (3) in (1) 2 2𝑅 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑟𝑛2 =
𝜇
4𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑑𝑛2 =
𝜇
2
4(𝑛 + 𝑘)𝜆𝑅
𝑑𝑛+𝑘 =
𝜇
2 2)
𝜇(𝑑𝑛+𝑘 −𝑑𝑛
𝜆= ------(10)
4𝑘𝑅

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 10

The experiment is repeated with air film in between. Let D(n+k) and Dn be the diameters of nth
and (n+k)th dark rings respectively.
Then,
𝐷𝑛2+𝑘 −𝐷𝑛2
𝜆= -----(11)
4𝑘𝑅
Dividing eq.(10) by eq.(11), we get
𝐷2 𝑛 −𝐷 2
𝜇 = 𝑑𝑛+𝑘
2 ------(12)
−𝑑2
𝑛+𝑘 𝑛

It can also be see that

𝑟2 2
𝐷𝑚
𝜇 = 𝑟𝑚
12 = 2 ----(13)
𝑚 𝑑𝑛
Where rm, rmI represent the radius of the same bright or dark ring with and without liquid film.
Since 𝜇 𝑖𝑠 always greater than 1, rm>rmI .So we can calculate that the rings contract with the
introduction of a liquid.

Applications
1) This technique can be used to check if two surfaces such as lenses have the same
curvature.
2) It can also be used to check whether or not a lens is suitable for use in optical instruments
intended for quality work.
3) Another practical application is the determination of the optical flatness of a glass plate.

Antireflection coatings
one of the important applications of thin film interference lies in reducing the reflectivity of
lens surfaces. In many optical instruments like telescope, the incident light has to undergo
reflections from many surfaces. When the light reflects back from each surface, there occurs
considerable loss in intensity of the transmitted light. This loss can be reduced by coating the
lens surface with a suitable transparent dielectric material whose refractive index is
intermediate between air and glass.

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M

 11

The incident light is reflected from the upper and lower surfaces A and B of the film. since
both the rays are reflected at a rarer-denser interface, the same phase change π occurs in both
cases. If the thickness of the film is such that both the reflected rays are in opposite face, they
will cancel each other due to destructive interference. For destructive interference, we have
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 =
2
𝜆
Then, 𝑡 = 4𝜇 Or
𝜆
any odd integral multiple of . The thickness is suitable only for a particular wavelength.
4𝜇
The coating material used are magnesium fluoride, cryolite etc.

********************

MODULE II- INTERFERENCE RESMI M