2022-2023

Developmental Psychology

EDITIED BY
DR . MOHAMED MOSTAFA ELIWA
 Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Chapter (One)

Introduction to Developmental Psychology

(Learning Objectives)

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1) identify concepts of development, developmental psychology& maturation.

2) figure out the importance of studying Developmental psychology.
3) study the main factors affecting the human development.
4) interpret phenomena and characteristics of human development.
5) distinguish stages, requirements, and embarrassing stages of human
development.
6) identify research methodologies of developmental psychology.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What is Development?

Development refers to systematic and continuous changes within the individual

that occur between conception (when the father’s sperm penetrates the mother’s ovum,
creating a new organism) and death.

Open Question(Formative Assessment)

Can we consider temporary mood fluctuations and other transitory
changes in our appearances, thoughts, and behaviors examples for
development?

What is the role of continuity V.S. Discontinuity in development?

Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process.

The continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in
thinking, talking, or acting much the same way as they get taller.

The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession of changes

that produce different behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages.
Biological changes provide the potential for these changes.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental psychology is branch of

Psychology that works as scientific study which aims
to explain growth, change and consistency though the
lifespan.

Developmental psychologists focus on human

growth and changes across the lifespan, including

physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth.

Human Development vs. Developmental Psychology!

What are the differences between human development and developmental

psychology?
Both terms are closely related. In fact, the study of developmental psychology is
most people’s entry into human development.
Developmental Psychology is defined as the scientific approach to explaining
growth, changes, and consistency throughout a lifetime

What are the goals of Developmental Psychology?

The goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and optimize
development to improve people’s lives.
What are the two main process of Development?
To grasp the meaning of development, we must understand two important processes
that underlie developmental change: maturation and learning.

Activity 1.1
What are the main differences between Development, Maturation,
Learning, and Experience?

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What are the significance/importance of studying Developmental

Psychology?
Why Do We Study Human
Growth and Development?
The study of human growth
and development offers a
wealth of value for personal
and professional. Many
reasons exist for why we study
human growth and
development.
Common benefits include the following:
• To gain a better understanding of one’s own life experiences. This can help
people personally reach an understanding of what childhood events shaped their
adulthood.
• To gain knowledge of how social context impacts development. This
knowledge can be invaluable for professionals like teachers as they gain a deeper
understanding of their students.
• To help others understand and contextualize the ups and downs of life. This
helps therapists and psychologists better aid their clients in self-discovery.
• To understand how societal change can support growth and development.
This understanding helps decision-makers in schools change the educational
culture for the better.
• To become a more effective research, teacher, or leader in many different
industries.
• To support the physical and mental health of individuals throughout their
life span. Professionals like doctors, nurses, and therapists must understand
human growth and development to better support their clients.
Dedicated benefits such as:
• Students may choose to study human growth and development because of its
array of applications across many professional fields. For example, students who
want to become elementary school teachers may take courses on the stages of
human development to understand cognitive development and how
children’s brains grow and change.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What are factors that affect Human Development?

10 Factors That Influence the Growth and Development of a Child

1. Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of
physical characteristics from parents
to children through their genes. It
influences all aspects of physical
appearance such as height, weight,
body structure, the color of eyes, the
texture of the hair, and even
intelligence and aptitudes. Diseases
and conditions such as heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can
also be passed through genes.
2. Environment
It represents the sum total of physical and psychological stimulation the child
receives. Some of the environmental factors influencing early childhood development
involve the physical surroundings and geographical conditions of the place the child
lives in, as well his social environment and relationships with family and peers. It is
easy to understand that a well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one; the
environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to this. A good school and
a loving family builds in children strong social and interpersonal skills, which will
enable them to excel in other areas such as academics and extracurricular activities.
This will, of course, be different for children who are raised in stressful environments.
3. Sex
The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and
development of a child. Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing
puberty. Boys tend to be taller and physically stronger than girls. However, girls tend
to mature faster during adolescence, while boys mature over a longer period of time.
The physical structure of their bodies also has differences which make boys more
athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigor. Their temperaments also
vary, making them show interest in different things.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4. Exercise and Health

The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline or children
deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it would help them grow. Exercise
here refers to the normal playtime and sports activities which help the body gain an
increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass. Proper exercise helps children
grow well and reach milestones on time or sooner. Exercise also keeps them healthy
and fights off diseases by strengthening the immune system, especially if they play
outside. This is because outdoor play exposes them to microbes that help them build
resistance and prevent allergies.
5. Hormones
Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions of
our bodies. They are produced by different glands that are situated in specific parts of
the body to secrete hormones that control body functions. Their timely functioning is
critical for normal physical growth and development in children. Imbalances in the
functioning of hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects, obesity,
behavioral problems, and other diseases. During puberty, the gonads produce sex
hormones which control the development of the sex organs and the appearance of
secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls.
6. Nutrition
Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to build and repair
itself comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can cause deficiency diseases that
adversely affect the growth and development of children. On the other hand, overeating
can lead to obesity and health problems in the long run, such as diabetes and heart
disease. A balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and
fats is essential for the development of the brain and body.
7. Familial Influence
Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and determining the
ways in which they develop psychologically and socially. Whether they are raised by
their parents, grandparents, or foster care, they need basic love, care, and courtesy to
develop as healthy functional individuals. The most positive growth is seen when
families invest time, energy, and love in the development of the child through activities,
such as reading to them, playing with them, and having deep meaningful conversations.
Families that abuse or neglect children would affect their positive development. These
children may end up as individuals who have poor social skills and difficulty bonding

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

with other people as adults. Helicopter parenting also has negative effects as they
render children dependent on the parents even as young adults and unable to deal with
difficulties in life on their own.
8. Geographical Influences
Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out to be. The
schools they attend, the neighborhood they live in, the opportunities offered by the
community and their peer circles are some of the social factors affecting a child’s
development. Living in an enriching community that has parks, libraries and
community centers for group activities and sports all play a role in developing the
child’s skills, talents, and behavior. Uninteresting communities can push some children
to not go outside often but play video games at home instead. Even the weather of a
place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies, and other health
conditions.
9. Socio-Economic Status
The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the opportunity a
child gets. Studying in better schools that are more expensive definitely has benefits in
the long run. Well-off families can also offer better learning resources for their children,
and they afford special aid if the kids need it. Children from poorer families may not
have access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential.
They may also have working parents who work too many hours and cannot invest
enough quality time in their development.
10. Learning and Reinforcement
Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned with building the
child up mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and socially so they operate as healthy
functional individuals in the society. This is where the development of the mind takes
place, and the child can gain some maturity. Reinforcement is a component of learning
where an activity or exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned. An
example is playing a musical instrument; they get better at playing it as they practice
playing the instrument. Therefore, any lesson that is taught has to be repeated until the
right results are obtained.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What are the major principles of human growth and development?

1. Development is Continuous
2. Development is Gradual
3. Development is Sequential
4. Rate of Development varies
person to person(Individuality)
5. Development proceeds from
General to Specific.
6. Most traits are correlated in
Development.
7. Growth and Development is
a product of both Heredity and Environment.
8. Development is predictable.
9. Development happens at both sides: quantified and qualified.
10. Constant Interaction Between All Factors of Development.
Principle # 1. Development is Continuous:
The process of growth and development continues from the conception till the
individual reach’s maturity. Development of both physical and mental traits continues
gradually until these traits reach their maximum growth. It goes on continuously
throughout life. Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end.
Principle # 2. Development is Gradual:
It does not come all on a sudden. It is also cumulative in nature.
Principle # 3. Development is Sequential:
Most psychologists agree that development is sequential or orderly. Every species,
whether animal or human, follows a pattern of development peculiar to it. This pattern
in general is the same for all individuals. The child crawls before he creeps, stands
before he walks and babbles before he talks.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Principle # 4. Rate of Development Varies Person to Person:

Rate of development is not uniform. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body
has its own particular rate of growth.
Principle # 5. Development Proceeds from General to Specific:
Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general
activity always precedes specific activity. For example, the fetus moves its whole body
but is incapable of making specific responses. With respect to emotional behavior
infants’ approach strange and unusual objects with some sort of general fear response.
Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different kinds of behavior, such as,
crying, turning away, and hiding etc.
Principle # 6. Most Traits are Correlated in Development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose mental development is above average, is
also superior in so many other aspects like health, sociability, and special aptitudes.
Principle # 7. Growth and Development is a Product of Both Heredity and
Environment:
Development is influenced by both heredity and environment. Both are responsible
for human growth and development.
Principle # 8. Development is Predictable:
The difference in physiological and psychological potentialities can ‘ be predicated
by observation and psychological tests.
Principle # 9. Development happens at both sides: quantified and qualified :
Development brings about both structural and functional changes.
Principle # 10. Constant Interaction Between All Factors of Development:
Development in one area is highly related to development in other areas. For
example, a child who has a good health can be active socially and intellectually.

Activity 1.2
Discuss with your group -in detail- the basic and general principles
of human growth?

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What Are the Stages of Human Development?

Many scientists and psychologists have studied various aspects of human
development, including ego psychologist Erik Erikson. He examined the impact of
social experiences throughout an individual’s life and theorized that psychosocial
development happens in eight sequential parts. (We will discuss in detail later)

The key components of Erikson’s model of human development include:

stage one, infancy, which match with trust versus mistrust;
stage two, toddlerhood, which match with autonomy versus shame and doubt;
stage three, preschool years, which match with initiative versus guilt;
stage four, early school years, which match with industry versus inferiority;
stage five, adolescence, which match with identity versus role confusion;
stage six, young adulthood, which match with intimacy versus isolation;
stage seven, middle adulthood, which match with generativity versus stagnation;
and stage eight, late adulthood, which match with integrity versus despair.
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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What are Research Methods in Developmental Psychology?

There are various methods of research, each with its specific advantages and
disadvantages. The one that a scientist chooses depends largely on the aim of the study
and the nature of the phenomenon being studied.
Research design provides a standardized framework by which to test a
hypothesis and evaluate whether the hypothesis was correct, incorrect, or inconclusive.
Even if the hypothesis is untrue, the research can often provide insights that may prove
valuable or move research in an entirely new direction.
There are a number of different ways to conduct research. Here are the most
common.

1-Cross-Sectional method
Cross-sectional research involves looking at different groups of people with
specific characteristics. For example, a researcher might evaluate a group of young
adults and compare the corresponding data from a group of older adults.
The benefit of this type of research is that it can be done relatively quickly; the
research data is gathered at the same point in time. The disadvantage is that the research
aims to make a direct association between a cause and an effect. This is not always so
easy. In some cases, there may be confounding factors that contribute to the effect.
To this end, a cross-sectional study can suggest the odds of an effect occurring
both in terms of the absolute risk (the odds of something happening over a period of
time) and the relative risk (the odds of something happening in one group compared to
another).
2-Longitudinal method
Longitudinal research involves studying the same group of individuals over an
extended period of time. Data is collected at the outset of the study and gathered
repeatedly through the course of study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last for
several decades or be open-ended. One such example is the Terman Study of the Gifted,
which began in the 1920s and followed 1528 children for over 80 years.
The benefit of this longitudinal research is that it allows researchers to look at
changes over time. By contrast, one of the obvious disadvantages is cost. Because of
the expense of a long-term study, they tend to be confined to either a smaller group of
subjects or a narrower field of observation.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

While revealing, longitudinal studies are difficult to apply to a larger population.

Another problem is that the participants can often drop out mid-study, shrinking the
sample size and relative conclusions. Moreover, if certain outside forces change during
the course of the study (including economics, politics, and science), they can influence
the outcomes in a way that significantly skews the results.
We saw this with the Terman study wherein the correlation between IQ and
achievement was blunted by such confounding forces as the Great Depression and
World War II (which limited educational attainment) and gender politics of the 1940s
and 1950s (which limited a woman's professional prospects).
3-Correlational method
Correlational research aims to determine if one variable has a measurable
association with another. In this type of non-experimental study, researchers look at
relationships between the two variables but do not introduce the variables themselves.
Instead, they gather and evaluate the available data and offer a statistical conclusion.
For example, the researchers may look at whether academic success in
elementary school leads to better-paying jobs in the future. While the researchers can
collect and evaluate the data, they do not manipulate any of the variables in question.
A correlational study is useful if you are unable to manipulate a variable because
it is either impossible, impractical, or unethical. While you might submit, for instance,
that living in a noisy environment makes you less efficient in the workplace, it would
be impractical and unreasonable to inject that variable artificially.
Correlational research clearly has its limitations. While it can be used to identify
an association, it does not necessarily suggest a cause for the effect. Just because two
variables have a relationship does not mean that changes in one will affect a change in
the other.
4-Experimental Research method(Experimentation)
Unlike correlational research, experimentation involves both the manipulation
and measurement of variables. This model of research is the most scientifically
conclusive and commonly used in medicine, chemistry, psychology, biology, and
sociology.
Experimental research uses manipulation to understand cause and effect in a
sampling of subjects. The sample is comprised of two groups: an experimental group
in whom the variable (such as a drug or treatment) is introduced and a control group in

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

whom the variable is not introduced. Deciding the sample groups can be done in a
number of ways:
• Population sampling, in which the subjects represent a specific population
• Randomization, in which subjects are chosen randomly to see if the effects of
the variable are consistently achieved
While the statistical value of an experimental study is robust, it's one major
shortcoming may be confirmation bias. This is when the investigator's desire to publish
or achieve an unambiguous result can skew the interpretations, leading to a false-
positive conclusion.
One way to avoid this is to conduct a double-blind study in which neither the
participants nor researchers are aware of which group is the control. A double-blind
randomized controlled trial (RCT) is considered the gold standard of research.
References
1. Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental psychology: Childhood and
adolescence. Cengage Learning.
2. Kring, A. M., Davison, G. C., Neale, J. M., & Johnson, S. L. (2007). Abnormal
psychology. John Wiley & Sons In
3. Jacobs, E. E., Masson, R. L., Harvill, R. L., & Schimmel, C. J. (2011). Group
counselling: Strategies and skills. Cengage learning.

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2022-2023

Developmental Psychology

EDITIED BY
DR . MOHAMED MOSTAFA ELIWA
Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Chapter (Two)

Development Theories

(Learning Objectives)

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

❖ understand the concept of development theory.

❖ identify the most important theories of psychological, moral, cognitive, and
social development.
❖ master the most important stages of development in the light of the selected
famous development theories.
❖ determine the components of personality in the light of each of the theories.
❖ identify the most important contributions of scientists in building and
developing famous development theories.
❖ provide criticism (positives and observations) considering the ideas of each
development theory.
❖ access to a set of educational applications of these theories.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Development Theories
Child development theories
focus on explaining how
children change and grow over
during childhood. Such theories
center on various aspects of
development including social,
emotional, and cognitive
growth.
The study of human
development is rich and varied
subject. We all have personal
experience with development,
but it is sometimes difficult to
understand how and why people
grow, learn, and act as they do.

Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their age,
family relationships, or individual temperaments?
Developmental psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as
to understand, explain, and predict behaviors that occur throughout the lifespan.

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories

of child development have arisen to explain various aspects of human growth.

Theories of development provide a scientific framework about human

growth, personality, and learning. But What can we learn from psychological
theories of development? If you have ever wondered about what motivates
human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful
insight into individuals and society.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Firstly: Psychoanalysis Developmental Theory

1-Who is Sigmund Freud?

2-What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory, and its most important terms?
3-Components of personality from the point of view of psychoanalysis.
4-Stages of growth and personality development in the light of
psychoanalytic theory.

1. Who is Sigmund Freud?

Sigmund Freud (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire

( Zech Republic now), and died September 23, 1939, he is Austrian neurologist and
the founder of psychoanalysis theory. He is Psychology's most famous figure and
one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of the twentieth century.

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a

method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human
behavior.

Freud's theories were enormously influential, but subject to considerable

criticism both now and during his own life.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

2- What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory, and its most important terms?

Before starting to talk about the assumptions of Psychoanalysis, we should
refer to the Psychodynamic Approach; so, what is Psychodynamic Approach,
and we can show the difference between it and psychoanalysis as follows:

• The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human
functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person,
particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality.

• Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis was the origin of psychodynamic theory, but the
psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas.

• The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that
Freud’s theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to
both his theories and those of his followers, so Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory
and therapy.

The primary assumption of psychoanalysis is the belief that all people

possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, motives and memories,
Psychoanalysis sought to bring unconscious information into conscious
awareness in order to bring about catharsis. This catharsis was an
emotional release that could bring about relief from psychological distress.
Psychoanalysis theory states that events in our childhood have a great
influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality. Events that occur in
childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults.
Research has found that psychoanalysis can be an effective treatment for
a number of mental health conditions. The self-examination that is involved
in the therapy process can help people achieve long-term improvement.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

We can sum them up as follows:

1) Our behaviors and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious

motives of mind
2) Our behaviors and feelings as adults are rooted in our childhood
experiences.
3) All behavior has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue.
Therefore, all behavior is determined:

❖ Unconscious Mind

Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud divided

the mind up into three components: the
conscious, the preconscious, and the
unconscious.
o The unconscious mind includes all the
things we are unaware of, but it can be
revealed through things such as dreams and
slips.
o The unconscious contains all sorts of
significant and disturbing material which
we need to keep out of awareness because
they are too threatening to acknowledge
fully.
o The unconscious mind acts as a repository,
a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes, instincts
and impulse kept at bay and mediated by the
preconscious area.
o People use a range of defense mechanisms (such as repression) to avoid
knowing what their unconscious motives and feelings are.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

3- Components of personality from the point of view of psychoanalysis.

Perhaps Freud's single most enduring and important idea was that the
human psyche (personality) has more than one aspect.

Personality in the view of Psychoanalysis is made up of three parts: (the

(Id), (Ego), and (Super-ego):
According to Freud psychoanalytic theory, the id is the primitive and
instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden
memories, the super-ego operates as a moral conscience, and the ego is the
realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.

Id:

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of

all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality present at birth,
including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the
aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.

The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds
directly and immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires. The personality of
the newborn child is all id and only later does it develop an ego and super-ego

The id remains infantile in its function throughout a person's life and does
not change with time or experience, as it is not in touch with the external world.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Ego
The ego is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence
of the external world.'

The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real
world. It is the decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works
by reason, whereas the id is chaotic and unreasonable.

Super-ego
The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned
from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during
the phallic stage of psychosexual development.

The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which
society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of persuading
the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive
for perfection.

The superego consists of two systems: The conscience and the ideal self:

The conscience can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For
example, if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the superego may make the
person feel bad through guilt.

The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be,
and represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave
as a member of society.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4-Stages of growth and personality development in the light of psychoanalytic

theory.

Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during

five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways
and through different parts of the body.

These are called psychosexual stages of development because each stage

represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts)
on a different area of the body.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

1-Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is not centered in a
baby's mouth. During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from
putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as
sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.

2-Excretory stage/Anal Stage (›1 to 3 years)

During this stage of psychosexual development, the libido (desires and
instincts) becomes focused on the anus, The child is now fully aware that they
are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict
with the demands of the outside world, Freud believed that this type of conflict
tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions
on when and where the child can defecate.

3-Phallic Stage (›3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning
the ages of three to six years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon
their genitalia as the erogenous zone.

The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion
the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy, and fear
which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls).

Oedipus Complex: This related to boys, and it is one of Freud's most

controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright. The name of the
Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man,
kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes
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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic term for both Oedipus and
Electra complexes.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying, and
joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and he
faces castration anxiety.

Electra Complex: This related to girls, the girl loves the father, but realizes
that she does not have the ability biologically. This leads to the development
of envy and the wish to be a boy. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove
the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role.

4-Latency Stage (› 6 years to puberty)

(Latent means hidden), during this stage the libido is dormant and no further
psychosexual development takes place (latent means hidden). Freud thought that
most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can
be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.

Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and
acquiring new knowledge,

5-Genital Stage (› puberty to adult)

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality
development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual
experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving
one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.

Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure

like during the phallic stage.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Secondly: Erik Erikson’s theory of Psycho-Social Development

1-Who is Erik Erikson?

2-What is Erikson’s theory of Psycho-social Development?
3- Components of personality from the point of view of Psychosocial.
4- Erik Erikson's eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in personality.

1-Who is Erik Erikson?

Erik Erikson was born on June
15, 1902, in Frankfurt,
Germany. His young Jewish
mother, Karla Abrahamsen,
raised him by herself for a time .
Erik passed away in May
1992 and aged nearly 91 .
Erik Erikson is best known for
his famous theory of
psychosocial development and
the concept of the identity crisis.
This early experience helped spark his interest in the formation of identity. He
explained that as a child he often felt confused about who he was and how he fit
into his community.
His theories marked an important shift in thinking on personality; instead of
focusing simply on early childhood events, his psychosocial theory looks at how
social influences contribute to our personalities throughout our entire lifespans.
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular
and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial
development rather than psychosexual development.

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 Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

2-What is Erikson’s theory of Psycho-social Development?

The term 'Psycho-Social’ literally means a combination of psychological and
social factors that collectively influence human behavior.
For example, in life’s situations studies have shown the relationship between
an individual's fears and apprehensions (psychological aspects) and how he
behaves with others in society (Social aspects).
This theory highlights the various crises faced by an individual and the
resulting virtues gained, while passing through the various stages of life, from
birth until death.

Erikson was highly influenced by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of

development but extended it in two substantial ways.
First, Freud’s focus was limited to childhood, arguing that the bulk of
personality is formed around age of five (following the phallic stage). In contrast,
Erikson developed a lifespan theory ‫ ;دورة حياة اإلنسان‬that is, he theorized about the
nature of personality development as it unfolds from birth through old age.
Second, Freud’s theory is considered a psychosexual theory of development,
emphasizing the importance of sexual drives and genitalia in how children
develop. Erikson’s theory is considered psychosocial, emphasizing the
importance of social and cultural factors across the lifespan.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

-Assumptions of psychosocial development theory

Although Erikson built his psychosocial development theory upon many
years of field research and study, the theory maintains a foundation in a few
assumptions.
1. Social expectations in each stage are the same across all cultures.
2. Parental influence exists throughout the stages of childhood and
adolescence.
3. Humans develop similarly across the eight stages.
-What are the Salient Features of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial
Development?
Erikson's theory is influenced by Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory.
Erikson laid more emphasis on culture and society.
Erikson proposed that personality development spans across the entire
lifetime.
Erikson proposed that a crisis/conflict arises at each developmental stage.
The crisis/conflict identifies differences between individual and societal
needs.
Successful completion of each of the 8 stages leads to a healthy personality
and acquisition of virtues.
What Is an Identity Crisis?
Identity involves the experiences, relationships, beliefs, values, and
memories that make up a person's subjective sense of self. This helps create a
continuous self-image that remains fairly constant even as new aspects of the self
are developed or strengthened over time.
An identity crisis is a developmental event that involves a person
questioning their sense of self or place in the world. The concept originates in
the work of developmental psychologist Erick Erikson.
Erikson believed that the formation of identity was one of the most
important conflicts that people face. According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a
time of intensive analysis and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself.

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 Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

3- Components of personality from the point of view of Psycho-Social.

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order
through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.
During each stage, the person experiences a psycho-social crisis which could
have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
These crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological
needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e.,
social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a
healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to
complete further stages and therefore unhealthier personality and sense of
self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

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 Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4- Erik Erikson's eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in personality.

Erikson asserts in his psychosocial theory that ego identity is reached by facing
goals and challenges throughout eight stages of development over the entire life
cycle. Each of the psychosocial stages is distinguished by two opposing
emotional forces, known as contrary dispositions, that result in a crisis that needs
to be resolved.
Each crisis must be mastered as swiftly as possible, otherwise, a person’s
psychology is in jeopardy. However, a successful resolution of the conflict
results in healthy personality and the attainment of a basic virtue. The ego uses
these character strengths to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully
complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore unhealthier personality and sense of self

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

1. Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust ‫الثقة في مقابل عدم الثقة‬

The first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial

development starts at birth and continues to
approximately )18( months of age. The
principal task here is trust versus mistrust.
Infants rely solely upon their caregivers; thus,
if caregivers are responsive and sensitive to
their infant’s needs, it helps the infant develop
a sense of trust. Apathetic caregivers who do
not meet their baby’s needs may cause the baby
to develop feelings of anxiety, fear and mistrust
and see the world as unpredictable. Basic virtue
developed: hope
2. Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Doubt ‫االستقاللية في مقابل الشعور بالخجل والشك‬
The second stage occurs between the ages of
1½ and 3 years. If a child is allowed to develop
at their own pace during this stage, they can
acquire self-reliance and self-confidence.
However, if parents are inconsistent,
overcritical, or overprotective, the child may
feel doubt at their ability to control themselves
and their world. Basic virtue developed: will
3. Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt ‫المبادرة في مقابل الشعور بالذنب‬
The third of Erikson’s eight stages of
psychosocial development arises during the
preschool stage, 3-5 years of age. A child can
develop initiative through social interactions,
and by planning and commencing in play and
other activities. If the child’s pursuits fail;
feelings of self-doubt and guilty may arise.
Basic virtue developed: purpose

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4. Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority ‫اإلنجاز في مقابل الشعور بالنقص‬
The fourth stage occurs from ages 5 to 12 years. During this period, a child
begins to compare themselves with peers. The child learns to be productive and
to accept the evaluation of his /her efforts, and in turn, can develop a sense of
accomplishment and pride in their academic work, sports, social activities, and
home life. If a child feels they do not measure up, feelings of inferiority or
incompetence may be established. Basic virtue developed: Competency
5. Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion ‫تكوين الهوية في مقابل اضطراب الهوية‬
The fifth stage of psychosocial development is marked by an adolescent
identity crisis. Between the ages of 12-18, an individual develops a sense of self
by experimenting with a variety of social roles. An adolescent who is successful
at forming a cohesive, positive identity will have a strong sense of identity,
whereas adolescents who do not search for an identity or are pressured into an
identity may experience role confusion and develop a weak sense of self. Basic
virtue developed: Fidelity
6. Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation ‫األلفة والود في مقابل العزلة‬
The sixth stage extends from late adolescence to early middle age, 18 to 40. A
strong sense of self must be developed in adolescence in order to create intimate
relationships with others during this stage. Adults who lack a positive self-
concept may experience emotional isolation or loneliness.
To avoid feeling isolated or alone, individuals must learn to not lose themselves
when sharing or caring for others. Gaining a strong self-identity allows an
individual to achieve true intimacy, whereas identity diffusion can be a
challenge. Basic virtue developed: love
7. Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation ‫اإلنتاج في مقابل الركود‬
Also called generativity versus self-absorption, the seventh stage in Erikson’s
psychosocial development theory occurs during the ages of 40-65. During middle
adulthood, individuals have a positive goal of generativity. In most cases, this
results in procreation, along with the fulfillment of parental and social
responsibilities. This is in strict contrast to interest in the self or self-absorption.
Basic virtue developed: Care

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

8. Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair ‫تكامل األنا في مقابل الشعور باليأس‬
The final stage of psycho-social development theory during old age (65+) is a
period when adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect.
Adults who feel fulfilled by their lives, either through a successful family or a
meaningful career, reach ego integrity, in which they can face aging and dying
with peace. If older adults do not feel that they have lived a good life, they risk
falling into despair.. Basic virtue developed: Wisdom

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Thirdly: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

1-Who is Jean Piaget ?

2-What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, most important terms?
3-Stages of growth and personality development in the light of Cognitive theory.

4-How to apply Piaget’s stages to learning and development

1-Who is Jean Piaget ?
Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980), was a Swiss psychologist

known for his work on child development. Piaget placed great importance on the
education of children.
As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934
that "Only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse,
whether violent, or gradual”.
Piaget was one of the most influential researchers in the area of
developmental psychology during the 20th century. Piaget originally trained in
the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself as "genetic
epistemologist ‫" عالم معرفة وراثية‬

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

2-What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, most important terms?

Cognition refers to thinking, knowledge, perception and memory processes,
and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes.
The theory of intellectual or cognitive development, published in 1936, is still
used today in some branches of education and psychology. It focuses on
children, from birth through adolescence, and characterizes different stages of
development, including:
• Language -Morals – Memory -Reasoning
-Assumptions of Cognitive development theory
Piaget made several assumptions about children while developing his theory:
• Children build their own knowledge based on their experiences.
• Children learn things on their own without influence from adults or older
children.
• Children are motivated to learn by nature. They do not need rewards as
motivation.
-Most important terms: Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation, and
Equilibration

There are a variety of terms Piaget used in his theory to explain cognitive
development and how it is achieved at different stages.

Schema ‫ المخطط‬is a term used to represent the building blocks of knowledge.

You may think of schemas as different index cards inside the brain. Each one
informs the individual on how to react to new information or situations.

For example, picture a person who is visiting the grocery store to buy milk. In
this event, the schema is a mentally stored pattern of behavior that can be applied
to this situation. The person remembers how to go through the aisles, find the
milk, select the preferred kind, and then pay at the register. Whenever the person

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

is tasked with getting milk, this particular “script” or schema is recalled from
memory. (Other important terms):

• Assimilation ‫ التمثيل‬/‫ االستيعاب‬is using an existing schema and applying it

to a new situation or object.
• Accommodation ‫المواءمة‬/‫ التكيف‬is changing approaches when an existing
schema does not work in a particular situation.
• Equilibration ‫ االتزان‬is the driving force that moves all development
forward.

Piaget did not believe that development progressed steadily. Instead,

it moved in leaps and bounds according to experiences.
3-Stages of growth and personality development in the light of Cognitive
theory.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

1. The sensorimotor stage (From birth to 2 years)

From birth to 2 years of age, an
infant begins to understand the
world around them by using their
senses and bodily movements.
Experts call this the sensorimotor
stage.
At first, a baby uses their basic
reflex movements, such as
sucking and waving their arms, to
explore their environment. They
also use their senses of sight,
touch, smell, taste, and hearing.
They gather information from these experiences and learn how to differentiate
between people, objects, textures, sights, and how different situations make them
feel.
2. The preoperational stage (From 2+ to 7 years)

In the preoperational stage, a child builds on object permanence and

continues to develop abstract ways of thinking. This includes developing
sophisticated language skills and using words and behaviors to represent objects
or events that they experienced in the past.

The child displays five key behaviors during this period:

• Imitation. This is where a child can mimic someone’s behavior even when
the person they are imitating is no longer in front of them.
• Symbolic play. A child starts to use objects as symbols, projecting the
properties of one object onto another; for example, pretending a stick is a
sword.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

• Drawing. Drawing involves both imitation and symbolic play. It begins

as scribbles and develops into more accurate abstract representations of
objects and people.
• Mental imagery. The child can picture many objects in their minds. They
may ask the names of objects often to secure these associations in their
mind.
• Verbal evocation of events ‫االستحضار اللفظي لألحداث‬. The child can use
language to describe and represent events, people, or objects from their
past.

3. The concrete operational stage (From 7+ to 11 years)

The concrete operational stage is another major turning point in a child’s

cognitive development. The child builds on and master’s abstract thought. They
become less egocentric and more rational.

During this stage, the child acquires the ability to develop and apply logical,
concrete rules to objects (but not to abstract concepts — this comes in the formal
operational stage).

This includes a better ability to classify objects into groups and subgroups, the
ability to understand logical orders, such as height and weight, and an
understanding of conservation.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4. The formal operational stage (From

11+ to adult)

In the formal operational stage,

which is the final stage of cognitive
development, a child learns more
sophisticated rules of logic. They can use
logical roles to understand abstract
concepts and solve problems.

The child is now able to analyze their environment and make deductions.
They move beyond the limits of understanding objects and facts, toward
problem-solving. This involves creating theories about what is possible based on
their existing knowledge.
The child can now use their existing knowledge to create new theories about
the world and make predictions about what will happen in the future.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4-How to apply Piaget’s stages to learning and development

So, how exactly can Piaget’s stages be applied to education? At the root, it is
about recognizing the stage a child is currently in and catering to that
developmental level.

Teachers and parents can help by providing children with different experiences
or ways to explore and experiment with their environments. It is through these
experiences that children may gain understandings of different concepts in a
hands-on way.

For young children entering preschool and kindergarten, Piaget’s theories

align more with play-based school programs, or environments where kids are
offered opportunities for trial and error, and interaction with the real world.

Piaget’s philosophy can be incorporated into any education program.

Examples include:

• Providing chances for trial and error. Focus on the process of learning
versus the end result.
• Providing children with visual aids and other props, like models, to
illustrate different ideas and concepts.
• Using real-life examples to paint complex ideas, like word problems in
math.
• Providing chances to classify or group information. Outlines and
hierarchies are good examples and allow kids to build new ideas from
previous knowledge.
• Offering problems that necessitate analytical or logical thinking. Brain
teasers can be used as a tool in this instance.
•

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
References
1. Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental psychology: Childhood and
adolescence. Cengage Learning.
2. Kring, A. M., Davison, G. C., Neale, J. M., & Johnson, S. L. (2007). Abnormal
psychology. John Wiley & Sons In
3. Jacobs, E. E., Masson, R. L., Harvill, R. L., & Schimmel, C. J. (2011). Group
counselling: Strategies and skills. Cengage learning.

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2022-2023

Developmental Psychology

EDITIED BY
DR . MOHAMED MOSTAFA ELIWA
Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Chapter (Three)

Development Stages

(Learning Objectives)

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

❖ identify the different stages of human development.

❖ figure out the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
milestones(characteristics) of infancy development stage.
❖ figure out the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
milestones(characteristics) of childhood development stage.
❖ figure out the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
milestones(characteristics) of adolescence development stage.
❖ figure out the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
milestones(characteristics) of adulthood development stage.
❖ figure out the physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
milestones(characteristics) of old age development stage.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Human Development Stages

Human development refers to
the physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial changes of humans
throughout the lifespan.
What types of development are
involved in each of these three
domains, or areas, of life?
Physical development
involves growth and changes in the
body and brain, the senses, motor
skills, and health and wellness.
Intellectual (Cognitive)
development involves learning,
attention, memory, language,
thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
Psychosocial and emotional
development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.
Which stage of life is the most important?
Some might claim that infancy is the key stage, when a baby’s brain is wide
open to new experiences that will influence all the rest of its later life. Others
might argue that it is adolescence or young adulthood, when physical health is at
its peak. Many cultures around the world value late adulthood more than any
other, arguing that it is at this stage that the human being has finally acquired the
wisdom necessary to guide others.
Who is right?
The truth of the matter is that every stage of life is equally significant and
necessary for the welfare of humanity.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

For confirmation, Development describes the way a child grows, changes,

and develops skills – not only physically, but also socially, emotionally,
cognitively, and communicatively.
Development stages can be divided into four stages as follow:
1-Childhood (0-12)
2- Adolescence(13- 19)
3- Adulthood(20-64)
4- Old age(Aging)(65+)
Childhood stage itself can be broken down into five stages:
1. Newborn (0-3 months)
2. Infant (4-12 months)
3. Toddler (1-3 years)
4. Preschool age (4-5 years)
5. School age (6-12 years).
At each of these stages, children reach different milestones (also known as
‘characteristics of a stage’. In the next sections, we will describe what these
milestones are, giving you a general idea of the rate at which children progress.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Firstly-Infancy Stage of Human Development (0 - 2 years)

Infancy, among humans, the
period of life between birth and the
acquisition of language,
approximately one to two years later.
Average newborn infant weighs
3.5 kg (7.5 pounds) and is about 50
cm (20 inches) long. The newborn
gains weight at an average of 170 to
200 g (6 to 7 ounces) per week for
the first three months. Growth
continues, but the rate gradually
declines to an average of 60 g per
week after 12 months.
Newborns typically sleep for about 16–18 hours a day, but the total amount
of time spent sleeping gradually decreases to about 9–12 hours a day by age two
years.
The ideal food for the young infant is mother’s milk. Babies can usually
be weaned)‫ (الفطام‬after they are six months old, and
the appearance of teeth allows them to switch from soft foods to solid ones by
the end of the first year. The first tooth usually erupts at about six months. By the
end of the first year, six teeth usually have erupted—four upper incisors and two
lower incisors.
Most infants begin crawling between 7 and 10 months, and by 12 months
they can stand up alone. The average baby is able to walk with help by 12 months
and can walk unaided by 14 months, at which time he is often referred to as
a toddler.
Every normal, healthy infant proceeds through a sequence of motor
development that occurs spontaneously and needs no special training.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

1-Physical development
Between 0 – 3 months a baby Between 3 – 6 months a baby
• can slightly lift their head when • can bring an object they are holding to
lying on their stomach their mouths
• can hold their head up for a few • can rollover, can sit up (with pillows to
seconds with support prop them up)
• will be able to use rooting and • begins to eat solid food.
sucking reflexes.

Between 6 – 9 months a baby Between 9 – 12 months a baby

• can crawl • can move easily from crawling
position to sitting
• can transfer toys and objects from
one hand to the other • can sit for long periods
• keeps hands open and relaxed most • can crawl up stairs
of the time
• can walk while holding onto furniture
• can sit up without being supported
• may take first steps alone
• can reach for objects that are out of
• can stand alone.
the way.

Between 1 and 2 years a baby

• can pick things up while standing

up
• can walk backwards
• can walk up and down stairs
without assistance
• can color or paint by moving the
entire arm
• can jump
• will begin to run
• can kick a ball
• can build a tower of 5 blocks.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

2-Intellectual development
Between 0 – 3 months a baby Between 3 – 6 months a baby
• can see objects within a distance of • can recognize familiar faces
13 inches
• can recognize and react to familiar
• can focus on faces of caregivers sounds
• recognizes familiar voices • will cry according to need
• can respond to their environment • will communicate through body
with facial expressions movements—waving arms and legs
and opening up hands

Between 6 – 9 months a baby Between 9 – 12 months a baby

• use babbling talk to get attention. • can put vowels and consonants
together
• use different sounds for different
needs • will use their tongue to change sound
• mimic sounds, inflections, gestures • can say “dada” and “mama”
• will anticipate food on sight • will look for a toy that has been
dropped
• smiles at a reflection of themselves in
the mirror • can find partially hidden objects

Between 1 and 2 years a baby

• can recognize the names of familiar

people, objects, and body parts
• can use 2 words together
• can follow simple instructions (1 or 2
steps)
• is beginning to sort objects by shapes
and color
• can tell the difference between "Me"
and "You"
• will imitate the actions and language
of adults.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

3-Emotional development
Between 0 – 3 months a baby Between 3 – 6 months a baby
• will communicate emotions through • will seek comfort and cry when
crying uncomfortable
• will feel comforted by someone • will express excitement by waving
familiar her arms and legs
• will have positive responses to touch • will start laughing aloud.
• will become quiet when picked up
• will show happiness and sadness.
Between 6 – 9 months a baby Between 9 – 12 months a baby
• will express a number of emotions • may begin having separation anxiety
including happiness, sadness, fear, • will start to develop self-esteem
and anger • will respond to positive feedback by
• will show frustration when a toy is clapping
taken away • may cling to one parent or both.
• will begin to understand others’
emotions (an angry voice, for
example, can make a baby frown)
• may start sucking their thumb or
holding a toy or a blanket for
comfort.
Between 1 and 2 years a baby

• will begin to feel jealousy when not

the center of attention
• will show frustration easily
• will react to changes in daily routines
• may have tantrums and show
aggression by biting, etc.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4-Social development
Between 0 – 3 months a baby Between 3 – 6 months a baby
• will enjoy social stimulation and • Begins to play with people
smiling at people • May cry when paly stops.
• will respond to touch • Will respond to their own names.
• responds to love and affection • Will raise their arms to signal “pick
• may imitate facial expressions. me up”.
• Will turn their head towards someone
speaking.
Between 6 – 9 months a baby Between 9 – 12 months a baby
• will want to take part in activities • will hold out their arms and legs
with people while being dressed
• will point to things for a reason • will mimic simple actions
• will seek attention. • will imitate other children
• will repeat sounds or movements that
make people laugh
• will always need to be within sight
and hearing of their caregiver
• will display affection in hugs, kisses,
pats, and smiles.
Between 1 and 2 years a baby

• will begin to feel jealousy when not

the center of attention
• will show frustration easily
• will react to changes in daily routines
• may have tantrums and show
aggression by biting, etc.
• enjoys playing alone for short
periods
• likes to do things without help
• has trouble sharing and may hit,
push, and grab to keep toys
• demonstrates concern for others
• is wary of adults they do not know.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Secondly-Childhood Stage of Human Development (3 - 12 years)

Childhood, period of the human lifespan between infancy and adolescence,
extending from ages 1–2 to 12–13.
Child development incorporates, physical growth as well as intellectual,
language, emotional and social development. Whilst these aspects are often
considered separately, in reality each influences all of the others. For example,
as the brain develops physically, so intellectual abilities increase. This in turn
allows a child to explore their social world more fully, develop their emotional
responses to it and the language needed to describe it, but in turn, this exploration
directly impacts on further physical brain development.
1-Physical development

Between 3 – 5 a child Between 6 – 9 a child

• can walk backward and forward; turn • can walk backward quickly
and stop well • can skip and run with speed
• can jump off low steps or objects, but • can jump over objects and from a
find it hard to jump over objects height
• will begin to ride tricycles • can coordinate movements for
• can skip unevenly swimming or bike riding
• can run well • will have increased coordination for
• can stand on one foot for five seconds catching and throwing
or more • will be able to participate in active
• will alternate feet when walking games with rules
down stairs • will have improved reaction time in
• can jump on a small trampoline responding to thrown balls
• can hold a pencil in a pincer grip • can dress themselves and tie
• can make shapes out of playdough shoelaces
• can use round tipped scissors • is independent in all aspects of self-
• is starting to color neatly. care
• is learning to write within the lines.
Between 10 – 12 a child
• will enjoy team sports
• will be able to swim
• can use adult type tools such as a hammer or saw
• will have improved handwriting
• will start puberty if a girl

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

2-Intellectual development

Between 3 – 5 a child Between 6 – 9 a child

• can understand two or three simple • can understand similarities and
things to do at once differences
• can sort objects by size and type • is beginning to understand more
• is starting to use pitch and tone complex grammar
• may start to use the past tense • a fluent speaker able to make up
• extends their vocabulary towards stories.
1000-1500 words. • can handle books well and can read
for pleasure by nine
Between 10 – 12 a child
• can use and understand very complex language
• will become interested in social issues
• will ask lots of questions and argue if they disagree with a point of view
• can start to predict the consequences of an action
• will develop a better sense of responsibility
• will start to understand how things are connected.

3-Emotional development

Between 3 – 5 a child Between 6 – 9 a child

• will become less egocentric • may begin to develop fears
• will be more even-tempered and • will be conscious of self-image and
cooperative with parents may not want parents kissing them in
• will express more awareness of other public
people’s feelings • may develop an interest in collecting
• show an understanding of right and things
wrong. • will have a conscious understanding
of right and wrong

Between 10 – 12 a child
• will be uncertain about puberty and changes to their bodies.
• will be insecure or have mood swings and struggle with self-esteem (especially in
girls).
• may develop body image and eating problems around this age.
• will be more aware of their own body and will want privacy.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4- Social development

Between 3 – 5 a child: Between 6 – 9 a child:

• will enjoy dramatic, imaginative play • is becoming less dependent on close
with other children adults for support
• will enjoy competitive games but • enjoys being in groups of other
will want to win children of similar age
• will get better at sharing and taking • is becoming more aware of their own
turns with other children gender
• will begin to feel more secure and • is developing understanding that
able to cope with unfamiliar certain kinds of behavior are not
surroundings and adults for periods acceptable
of time • will have a strong sense of fairness
• is becoming more cooperative with and justice
adults and likes to help. • starts to form closer friendships at
• about eight years old
• likes to play with same-sex friends
• still needs an adult to help to sort out
arguments and disagreements in play
• can be arrogant and bossy or shy and
uncertain.
•
Between 10 – 12 a child:
• will begin to feel jealousy when not the center of attention
• will show frustration easily
• will react to changes in daily routines
• may have tantrums and show aggression by biting, etc.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Thirdly- Adolescence Stage of Human Development (13 - 19 years)

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood.
Children who are entering adolescence are going through many changes
(physical, intellectual, personality and social developmental).
Adolescence begins at puberty, which now occurs earlier, on average, than in
the past. The end of adolescence is tied to social and emotional factors and can
be somewhat ambiguous.
1-Physical development
Between 13 – 15: Between 16 – 19:
• girls body fat increases • boys will grow facial hair
• boys muscle mass increases • girls are usually at full development
• girls’ breasts enlarge • will see an increase in strength and
• boys’ genitals enlarge co-ordination
• girls experience their first menstrual • will have full adult motor skills by 19
cycle
• body hair grows
• may sweat more as their sweat glands
become more active

2-Intellectual development
Between 13 – 15: Between 16 – 19:
• will start to question school and • are better at solving problems than
family rules younger teens, but is inconsistent
• will have very distinct views - • tend to make rash decisions even
something is right or wrong, good, or though they weigh the consequences
bad first
• is unable to plan or think into the • has improved organizational skills
future and is better at balancing school,
• will think they know everything activities, social life, and work
• will develop intellectual curiosity • will explore job and college options,
• will start to experiment religion, social and political issues
• will have idealistic views. • will frequently question and
challenge rules.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

3-Emotional development
Between 13 – 15: Between 16 – 19:
• is egocentric – “it’s all about me!” • is more self-assured
• is moody • is excited but overwhelmed by
• is full of self-doubt thoughts of the future
• is becoming aware of their sexual • can experience depression
orientation. • now has a fully developed moral
conscience.

4-Social development
Between 13 – 15: Between 16 – 19:
• thinks that friends are more • is more self-assured
important than family • is excited but overwhelmed by
• will complain about lack of privacy thoughts of the future
• will fluctuate between clinging to • can experience depression
adults and rebelling against them • now has a fully developed moral
• will start to form an identity, through conscience
hobbies, friends, clothes, hairstyles, • may feel like they are in love
music, etc. • will begin to have strong sexual
• will often push the limits of adults to urges and may become sexually
assert their independence active.
• will spend a lot of time on their
phone or social media chatting to
friends.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Fourthly- Adulthood Stage of Human Development (20 - 64 years)

Adulthood begins around 20 years old and has three distinct stages: early,
middle, and late. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges.
By the time we reach early adulthood (20 to early 45s), Middle adulthood
extends from the 45s to the 64s.
1-Physical development
Between 20 – 45(Early adulthood) Between 46 – 64(Middle Adulthood)
• growth of skeletal systems continues • bone mass begins to decrease
until age 30 • loss of skeletal height; calcium loss
• muscular efficiency is at its peak especially after menopause
between 20-30 years • decreased muscle strength if not
• eye sight may start to deteriorate used; endurance declines
• some loss in hearing, especially high • loss of skin elasticity, dry skin,
tones. increased appearance of wrinkles
• skin begins to lose moisture • decreased metabolic rate
• decreased heat/cold tolerance
• more prone to infection
• receding hairline in males, more
facial hair in females
• slowing of reflexes
• visual changes, especially
farsightedness
• noticeable loss of hearing and taste
• muscles and joints respond more
slowly
• decreased balance and coordination.

2-Intellectual development
Between 20 – 45(Early adulthood) Between 46 – 64(Middle Adulthood)
• mental abilities reach their peak • decrease in short-term memory or
• greater reasoning powers recall
• a greater creative imagination • harder to understand information or
• faster information recall learn something new
• well-developed verbal skills. • decrease in mental performance
speed.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

3-Emotional development
Between 20 – 45(Early adulthood) Between 46 – 64(Middle Adulthood)
• may become concerned about health • future oriented or self-absorbed
issues • may experience empty nest
• moves from being dependent to syndrome expressed positively or
responsible. negatively
• finds it difficult to adjust to changes
in body image
• may have a mid-life crisis
• starts to recognize limitations
• measures accomplishments against
goals
• may re-evaluate current life style and
value system.

4- Social development
Between 20 – 45(Early adulthood) Between 46 – 64(Middle Adulthood)
• achievement orientated – working • achievement orientated – working
their way up the career ladder their way up the career ladder
• searching for and finding a place for • children leave home; re-establish as
themselves in society couple
• starts a career • adjust to possibility of retirement and
• develops loving relationships life-style change.
• becomes a parent
• takes on responsibility for children
and ageing parents.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Fifthly- Later adulthood (Old Stage) of Human Development (65+ years)

Late adulthood spans the time when we reach our mid-sixties until death.
1-Physical development 2-Intellectual development
• decreased tolerance to heat/cold • ability to share wisdom with others
• decreased circulation • decrease in memory
• declining heart function • slowing of mental functions
• loss of teeth leading to changes in • cognitive function is dependent on
food choices general health and involvement in
• decreased vision society.
• possible hearing loss
• decreased ability to taste and smell
• decreased tolerance to pain
• decreased oil in skin
• decreased perspiration
• increased wrinkles
• loss of fat layers on limbs and face
• bones become more prominent
• increase in possibility of high blood
pressure
• development of cataracts is common.
3-Emotional development 4-Social development
• possibility of loneliness due to • grandchildren
retirement • new friends and hobbies
• depression following death of spouse • loss of structure following retirement
and friends • loss of work colleagues.
• worry about health
• anger at loss of independence
• frustration at moving from a position
of responsibility to one of
dependence.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

‫ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
References
1. Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental psychology: Childhood and
adolescence. Cengage Learning.
2. Kring, A. M., Davison, G. C., Neale, J. M., & Johnson, S. L. (2007). Abnormal
psychology. John Wiley & Sons In
3. Jacobs, E. E., Masson, R. L., Harvill, R. L., & Schimmel, C. J. (2011). Group
counselling: Strategies and skills. Cengage learning.

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2022-2023

Developmental Psychology

EDITIED BY
DR . MOHAMED MOSTAFA ELIWA
Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Chapter (Four)

Mental Health

(Learning Objectives)

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

❖ understand the concepts of Mental Health.

❖ reach out a new definition for Mental Health.
❖ figure out the normal and the abnormal personality .
❖ identify the factors affecting the normal and the abnormal personality.
❖ figure out the psychological compatibility.
❖ know the roles of both family and school to develop mental health.
❖ figure out the different psychological and mental diseases.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Mental Health
What is Mental Health?
According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), Mental
Health is “a state of well-being in
which the individual realizes his or
her own abilities, can cope with the
normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully, and is
able to make a contribution to his or
her community”.
So, Mental Health refers to
cognitive, behavioral, and emotional
well-being. It is all about how people
think, feel, and behave/act.
People sometimes use the term “mental health” to mean the absence of a
mental disorder/ illness; as it determines how we handle stress, relate to others,
and make choices.
The WHO stress that mental health is “more than just the absence of mental
disorders or disabilities.” Peak mental health is about not only avoiding active
conditions but also looking after ongoing wellness and happiness”.
They also emphasize that preserving and restoring mental health is crucial on
an individual basis, as well as throughout different communities and societies the
world over.
In the United States, the National Alliance on Mental Illness estimate that
almost 1 in 5 adults experience mental health problems each year.
In 2017, an estimated 11.2 million adults in the U.S., or about 4.5% of adults,
had a severe psychological condition, according to the National Institute of
Mental Health (NIMH).
Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and
adolescence through adulthood.
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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

TOWARD A NEW DEFINITION OF MENTAL HEALTH!

Aware of the fact that differences across countries in values, cultures and
social background may hinder the achievement of a general consensus on the
concept of mental health, we aimed at elaborating an inclusive definition,
avoiding as much as possible restrictive and culture-bound statements.
The concept that mental health is not merely the absence of mental illness
was unanimously endorsed, while the equivalence between mental health and
well-being/functioning was not, and a definition leaving room for a variety of
emotional states and for “imperfect functioning” was drafted. The proposed
definition is reported herewith:
“Mental health is a dynamic state of internal equilibrium which enables
individuals to use their abilities in harmony with universal values of society.
Basic cognitive and social skills; ability to recognize, express and modulate one's
own emotions, as well as empathize with others; flexibility and ability to cope
with adverse life events and function in social roles; and harmonious
relationship between body and mind represent important components of mental
health which contribute, to varying degrees, to the state of internal equilibrium”
The definition of mental health drafted above is aimed to overcome
perspectives based on ideal norms or hedonic and eudemonic theoretical
traditions, in favor of an inclusive approach, as free as possible of restrictive
and culture-bound statements, and as close as possible to human life
experience, which is sometimes joyful, and at other times sad or disgusting or
frightening; sometimes satisfactory, and at other times challenging or
unsatisfactory.
The proposed definition is also compatible with the recovery movement
perspective, in which recovery after an illness is seen as a process aimed to attain
a fulfilled and valued life by building on the functions spared by the illness, in
spite of the fact that other functions have been impaired

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Early Warning Signs for Mental Health problems?

Not sure if you or someone you know is living with mental health problems?
Experiencing one or more of the following feelings or behaviors can be an early
warning sign of a problem:

• Eating or sleeping too much

or too little
• Pulling away from people
and usual activities
• Having low or no energy
• Feeling numb or like nothing
matters
• Having unexplained aches
and pains
• Feeling helpless or hopeless
• Smoking, drinking, or using drugs more than usual
• Feeling unusually confused, forgetful, on edge, angry, upset, worried, or
scared
• Yelling or fighting with family and friends
• Experiencing severe mood swings that cause problems in relationships
• Having persistent thoughts and memories you cannot get out of your head
• Hearing voices or believing things that are not true
• Thinking of harming yourself or others
• Inability to perform daily tasks like taking care of your kids or getting to
work or school
Mental Health and Wellness
Positive mental health allows people to:

• Realize their full potential.

• Cope with the stresses of life.
• Work productively and fruitfully.
• Make meaningful contributions to their communities.
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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Mental Health Myths and Facts:

Learn the truth about the most common mental health myths.
1-Myth: Mental health problems do not affect me.
Fact: Mental health problems are actually very common. In 2014, about:
One in five American adults experienced a mental health issue.
One in 10 young people experienced a period of major depression.
One in 25 Americans lived with a serious mental illness, such as schizophrenia,
bipolar disorder, or major depression.
1 in 6 U.S. youth aged 6 to 17 years’ experience a mental health illness.

2-Myth: Children do not experience mental health problems.

Fact: Even very young children may show early warning signs of mental
health concerns. These mental health problems are often clinically diagnosable
and can be a product of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social
factors.
Half of all mental health disorders show first signs before a person turns
14 years old, and three quarters of mental health disorders begin before age 24.
Unfortunately, less than 20% of children and adolescents with diagnosable
mental health problems receive the treatment they need. Early mental health
support can help a child before problems interfere with other developmental
needs.
3-Myth: People with mental health problems are violent and unpredictable.
Fact: The vast majority of people with mental health problems are no
more likely to be violent than anyone else. Most people with mental illness are
not violent and only 3%–5% of violent acts can be attributed to individuals living
with a serious mental illness. In fact, people with severe mental illnesses are over
10 times more likely to be victims of violent crimes than the general population.
You probably know someone with a mental health problem and do not even
realize it, because many people with mental health problems are highly active
and productive members of our communities.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

4-Myth: People with mental health needs, even those who are managing
their mental illness, cannot tolerate the stress of holding down a job.
Fact: People with mental health problems are just as productive as other
employees. Employers who hire people with mental health problems report good
attendance and punctuality as well as motivation, good work, and job tenure on
par with or greater than other employees.
When employees with mental health problems receive effective
treatment, it can result in:
Lower total medical costs - Increased productivity
Lower absenteeism - Decreased disability costs
5-Myth: Personality weakness or character flaws cause mental health
problems. People with mental health problems can snap out of it if they try
hard enough.
Fact: Mental health problems have nothing to do with being lazy or weak
and many people need help to get better. Many factors contribute to mental health
problems, including:
Biological factors, such as genes, physical illness, injury, or brain
chemistry.
Life experiences, such as trauma or a history of abuse.
Family history of mental health problems.

People with mental health problems can get better,

many recover completely.
6-Myth: There is no hope for people with mental health problems. Once a
friend or family member develops mental health problems, he or she will
never recover.
Fact: Studies show that people with mental health problems get better and
many recover completely. Recovery refers to the process in which people are
able to live, work, learn, and participate fully in their communities. There are
more treatments, services, and community support systems than ever before, and
they work.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

7-Myth: Therapy and self-help are a waste of time. Why bother when you
can just take a pill?
Fact: Treatment for mental health problems varies depending on the
individual and could include medication, therapy, or both. Many individuals
work with a support system during the healing and recovery process.
8-Myth: I cannot do anything for a person with a mental health problem.
Fact: Friends and loved ones can make a big difference. Only 44% of
adults with diagnosable mental health problems and less than 20% of children
and adolescents receive needed treatment. Friends and family can be important
influences to help someone get the treatment and services they need by:

Reaching out and letting them know you are available to help
Helping them access mental health services
Learning and sharing the facts about mental health, especially if you hear
something that is not true
Treating them with respect, just as you would anyone else
Refusing to define them by their diagnosis or using labels such as "crazy"
9-Myth: Prevention does not work. It is impossible to prevent mental
illnesses.
Fact: Prevention of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders focuses
on addressing known risk factors such as exposure to trauma that can affect the
chances that children, youth, and young adults will develop mental health
problems. Promoting the social-emotional well-being of children and youth leads
to:
Higher productivity
Better educational outcomes
Lower crime rates
Stronger economies
Lower health care costs
Improved quality of life
Increased lifespan
Improved family life

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Normal and Abnormal behavior in Psychology

What is Normal Behavior?
Normal behavior refers to expected behavior in individuals. The manner
in which people interact with others, go about their lives are usually in
accordance with the social expectations. When these expectations and individual
behavior synchronize, the behavior is considered as normal.
For example, imagine you see an individual shouting at a pay counter
because the cashier is too slow. You would not consider the individual as crazy
or his behavior as abnormal. This is because we consider it as expected and
normal human behavior. In every society, there are social expectations, norms,
values, mores, etc. which dictate ‫ تُملي عليهم‬the code of conduct of individuals. As
long as people abide ‫ يلتزم‬by these their behavior is considered as normal. There
may be exceptions to this, where there are eccentric characters as well. These
people, however, are not considered as abnormal because there is a wide diversity
of individual characters and personalities.
What is Abnormal Behavior?
If a pattern of behavior goes against what is considered as normal by
the society, this can be defined as abnormal behavior. According to the
Diagnostic Statistical Manual abnormal describes behavioral, emotional,
cognitive dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context and
associated with personal distress and substantial impairment in functioning. This
definition suggests that the common myths that people have of individuals who
are considered as abnormal are inaccurate. Some of the myths are that the
individual abnormal behavior cannot be cured and are due to genetics, they are
weak willed and dangerous, they never contribute to society and are devious. In
ancient days, when people with abnormal behavior were found they were
considered as engaging in witchcraft or possessed by demons and were treated
brutally. Exorcism, trepanation, and shock therapy were given to these people.
In the present, abnormality is considered as a mental illness. In Psychology, these
are divided into different themes such as clinical disorders, personality disorders,
general medical conditions, etc.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What is Mental and Psychological Diseases/Illness and its types?

Mental health conditions are disturbances in a person's thinking, feeling, or
behavior (or a combination of these) that reflect a problem in mental function.
They cause distress or disability in social, work, or family activities. Just as the
phrase “physical illness” is used to describe a range of physical health problems,
the term "mental illness" encompasses a variety of mental health conditions.
Mental Illness/Disorders?
The American Psychiatric Association defines mental illness as a health
condition that involves “changes in emotion, thinking, or behavior—or a
combination of these.” If left untreated, mental illnesses can have a huge impact
on daily living, including your ability to work, care for family, and relate and
interact with others. Similar to having other medical conditions like diabetes or
heart disease, there is no shame in having a mental illness, and support and
treatment are available.
Serious mental illness (SMI) is a term used by health professionals to
describe the most severe mental health conditions. Two of the most common
SMIs are bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
Types of Mental Diseases& Disorders.
There are hundreds of mental illnesses listed in the fifth
edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-5), The DSM-5 puts illnesses into
categories based on their diagnostic criteria.
❖ Anxiety Disorders
This group of mental illnesses is characterized by significant feelings of
anxiety or fear, accompanied by physical symptoms such as shortness of breath,
rapid heartbeat, and dizziness.
Three major anxiety disorders are:

▪ Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

▪ Social anxiety disorder (SAD)
▪ Panic disorder
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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

❖ Bipolar Disorders
Formerly known as manic depression, bipolar disorders are characterized
by alternating episodes of mania, hypomania, and major depression.
There are three broad types of bipolar disorder:
▪ Bipolar I
▪ Bipolar II
▪ Cyclothymia

❖ Depressive Disorders
The common feature of all depressive disorders is the presence of sad,
empty, or irritable mood, accompanied by physical symptoms and cognitive
changes that significantly affect a person's capacity to function.
Examples include major depressive disorder and premenstrual dysphoric
disorder (PMDD).

❖ Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders

A group of psychiatric conditions that involve problems with the self-
control of emotions and behaviors.
Disorders in this group include:
▪ Intermittent explosive disorder
▪ Kleptomania
▪ Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
▪ Pyromania

❖ Dissociative Disorders
This group of psychiatric syndromes is characterized by an
involuntary disconnection between consciousness, memories, emotions,
perceptions, and behaviors—even one's own identity or sense of self.

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2022-2023

Developmental Psychology

EDITIED BY
DR . MOHAMED MOSTAFA ELIWA
Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Chapter (Five)

Psychological Counseling

(Learning Objectives)

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

❖ understand the concept of Psychological Counseling.
❖ differentiate between Counselors and Counseling Psychologists.
❖ figure out the importance of Psychological Counseling.
❖ identify the fields of psychological Counseling.
❖ figure out some methods and techniques of Psychological Counselling.
❖ know some samples of school and counseling sessions.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Psychological Counseling
What is Psychological Counseling?
The term "counselling" is of American
origin, coined by Carl Rogers, who,
lacking a medical qualification was
prevented from calling his work
psychotherapy.
In the U.S., counselling psychology,
like many modern psychology specialties,
started as a result of World War II. During
the war, the U.S. military had a strong need
for vocational placement and training.
In the 1940s and 1950s, the Veterans
Administration created a specialty called
"Counseling Psychology", and Division 17
(now known as the Society for Counseling Psychology) of the APA was formed.
According to Harriman “Counselling is the psychotherapeutic
relationship in which an individual receives direct help from an adviser or
finds an opportunity to release negative feelings and thus clear the way for
positive growth in personality.”
That refers “Counselling is a face-to-face relationship in which growth takes
place in the counsellor as well as the counsellee.”
Counselling psychology is a broad specialization within professional
psychology concerned with using psychological principles to enhance and
promote the positive growth, well-being, and mental health of individuals,
families, groups, and the broader community.
Counseling psychology is a field that aims to help individuals, at any stage
in life, overcome mental health challenges in order to improve the quality of
living.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

The Difference Between Counselors and a Counseling Psychologists

Counselors and counseling psychologists perform similar duties, but there are
some key differences between the two professions. Both help people live better
lives, but counselors and counseling psychologists have different educational
backgrounds, areas of focus and specialization, and work settings.
Similarities
There are similarities between counselors and counseling psychologists,
including that both professions:
• Both are mental health practitioners
• Both can diagnose and treat mental health conditions
• Both can provide psychotherapy.
• Both help clients improve their well-being.
• Both may specialize in a particular area, such as working with children,
adults, or couples.
• Both work in diverse areas including hospitals, government offices, mental
health clinics, academic settings, and private practice.
Differences

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 Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

Why Psychological Counseling Is Important?

Here is a list of the benefits of counseling based on research.
1. Treating mental illness and improving mood.

Gingerich and Eisengart (2000) reviewed 15 outcome studies regarding the

efficacy of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) for depression, anxiety,
parenting skills, psychosocial adjustment, antisocial behaviors, alcohol use, and
family conflict. Five of the studies were tightly controlled, and all of them found
SFBT to be significantly better than no treatment.
2. Counseling can reduce medical costs.

There is a direct link between physical and mental health. Often, when
individuals treat underlying mental health conditions or receive counseling to
help regulate emotions and improve mood, physical health improves as well.
One study found that psychological treatment among individuals with chronic
physical conditions in small group settings decreased medical care costs by $10
for every $1 spent.
3. Counseling can provide education and teach skills.

Many people who come to counseling know that they are suffering but
understand nothing about the underlying causes, specific conditions, or how
certain techniques can address presenting problems. Psychoeducation can help
normalize problems, decrease stigma, and increase compliance with treatment
plans
4. Counseling can promote factors of resilience.

Resilience factors include (self-esteem, self-efficacy, cognitive flexibility,

optimism, having meaning or purpose in life, experiencing positive emotions..)
While there are specific resilience-training programs focused on improving
these factors, many forms of counseling increase these aspects of resilience too.
Stress inoculation therapy is a form of positive CBT that can teach individuals
more adaptive patterns of thinking and emotional and behavioral responses

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

What are the career fields/Jobs of Psychological Counseling?

A great benefit of pursuing a career in counseling psychology is the wide
range of landscapes in which you can work. These include:
• Hospitals
• Health centers and clinics
• Private practices
• Education
• Research and corporate institutions
As you navigate your career, you might find yourself working in more than
one of these spaces. Whether you are a practicing counseling psychologist, a
researcher advancing the field’s knowledge, or an academic molding the minds
of future counseling psychologists, your efforts will be working for the
betterment of the human condition.
The different types of counseling careers in the field of psychology available.
1- School Counselor
2- Marriage and Family Therapist
3- Mental Health Counselor
4- Rehabilitation Counselor
5- Child Pediatric Counselor
6- Grief Counselor

1-School Counselor
School counselors or guidance counselors commonly work with students to
discuss issues or obstacles that are affecting their social and academic success.
Whether it is assisting students with college applications, helping to make
schedule changes, or talking with a troubled pupil, school counselors are a vital
member of the education team and work hard each day to help students reach
their full potential. No matter which school a counselor works at, their goal is to
help all students achieve their full potential and become the distinguished
professionals of tomorrow.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

2- Marriage and Family Therapist

Marriage and Family Therapists are counselors who work with individuals,
married couples, and families experiencing problems within their relationship.
Communication issues, contemplating divorce, dealing with family loss, and
many other factors can impact the health of a relationship.
The goal of family or marriage counseling is to help the patient change
problematic interactions that contribute to a struggling relationship.

3-Mental Health Counselor

Mental health counselors are profoundly trained in mental illness,
psychotherapy, and clinical intervention services. Mental health counselors
primarily work with individuals who are struggling with a wide range of
emotions and conflicts that ultimately affect their well-being.

4-Rehabilitation Counselor
Rehabilitation counselors are those who work with individuals to help improve
their physical and emotional well-being. A rehabilitation counselor works with
individuals who are struggling with personal, social, or physical disabilities that
affect their ability to gain employment, or even live independently.

5-Child Pediatric Counselor

Child counseling is a class of therapy that specializes in the well-being of
children, teens, and adolescents. Often, if a child has a mental illness, trauma, or
a stressful home environment, a child counselor may be needed to help the patient
understand and cope with their emotions. Though child counseling focuses
specifically on children, several of the issues children encounter mimic those that
adults face daily.

6-Grief Counselor
A grief counselor is a professional who is trained to help patients cope with
the grief felt after a significant loss. A counselor will create a safe environment
for patients to comfortably express their sorrow and help them move on from
their grieving experience. Most people will experience loss at some point in their
lives. When dealing with loss, grief is a natural reaction. From sadness to anger,
the grief process varies significantly from person to person. Grief is often
composed of thoughts and emotions that change quickly

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

►Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is grounded in the assumption that

“emotional disorders are maintained by cognitive factors, and that psychological
treatment leads to changes in these factors through cognitive and behavioral
techniques”.
In other words, by combining both cognitive and behavioral approaches, CBT
focuses on how thoughts and behaviors dictate a person’s feelings in a given
situation.

The following principles guide Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy:

1. Mental health disorders involve key learning and information processing

mechanisms.

2. Behaviors are better understood by exposing their true functions.

3. New adaptive learning experiences can be used to substitute prior

maladaptive learning processes.

4. Therapists use a scientific approach to therapy by creating hypotheses about

patients’ cognitive and behavioral patterns, intervening, and observing
outcomes, and reframing original hypotheses as needed .

A variety of different techniques and components may be included in CBT,

such as exposure, social skills training, cognitive restructuring, problem-solving
training, journaling, and relaxation training.

► Mindfulness-Based Counseling

Mindfulness-Based Counseling is grounded in mindfulness philosophy, which

“refers to a process that leads to a mental state characterized by nonjudgmental
awareness of the present moment experience, including one’s sensations, thoughts,
bodily states, consciousness, and the environment while encouraging openness,
curiosity, and acceptance”.

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Developmental Psychology Dr.Mohamed Mostafa Eliwa

During Mindfulness-Based Therapy, the client pays attention to their feelings and
thoughts in the moment, without judgment. Following Buddhist traditions, it is an
open minded and accepting way of responding to thoughts.

Mindfulness-Based Counseling is an increasingly popular approach aimed at

helping clients to increase relaxation while removing negative or stressful
judgments. This technique helps to teach clients how to deal with emotional
stressors reflectively instead of reflexively.

Different types of mindfulness meditation approaches may be applied as part of

Mindfulness Counseling, such as yoga, breathing meditation, sitting meditation,
body scan, and sound scan.

Body scan involves gradually attending to different parts of the body while tensing
and then relaxing muscles. With sound scan, responses to sounds are adjusted so
that their aversive impact is reduced. While mindfulness approaches are often added
into CBT and other forms of therapy, there is recent evidence supporting their
unique benefit for reducing anxiety.

For samples of psychological cases from reality, you can access this book link

https://drive.google.com/file/d/19NJ4hu9anyaEhakHpnnGSrpZTufIA8M8/view

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References
1. Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental psychology: Childhood and
adolescence. Cengage Learning.
2. Kring, A. M., Davison, G. C., Neale, J. M., & Johnson, S. L. (2007). Abnormal
psychology. John Wiley & Sons In
3. Jacobs, E. E., Masson, R. L., Harvill, R. L., & Schimmel, C. J. (2011). Group
counselling: Strategies and skills. Cengage learning.

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