LECTURE EIGHT: SPEAKING SKILLS: TYPES OF SPEECHES AND SPEECH

DELIVERY MODES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This section will cover the following topics:, distinguish between public speaking and
conversation, show how to effectively manage stage fright, describe effective public speaking
strategies, explain the significance of public speaking to an individual, describe the various
approaches to a speech, explain the various modes of delivering a speech, explain the uses of
non-verbal communication cues in public speaking, describe informative and persuasive
speeches.
Topic objectives
By the end of this section, the student should be able to:
i) Distinguish public speaking from conversation
ii) Effectively manage stage fright
iii). Describe effective public speaking strategies
iv). Explain the significance of public speaking to an individual
v). Describe the various approaches to a speech
vi). Describe different types of speech delivery
vii) Explain the uses of non verbal communication cues in public speaking
viii). Discuss presentations in informative and persuasive speeches.
5.2 IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Speaking is an integral part of the communication process. Through speech we express our
thoughts and this is the major motivation in speaking. Besides, we speak to socialize with others,
to gratify the listener and at times to gain some rewards (Pushp & Kumar 2007: 11). When we
excel in speech, we may win the favor of the management and get promoted. Speaking skills
enables us to present information in a clear, accurate and interesting way. Our speaking style
determines how a message is received and it is an important factor in successful communication.
A person acquires a distinctive, unique speaking style through experience, but speaking styles
can be improved by conscious effort and practice.
5.2.1 THE DIFFERENCE BTWEEN PUBLIC SPEAKING AND CONVERSATION
Though public speaking requires almost the same skills as used in ordinary conversation, there is
a difference in how you put forth your thought in both situations. The two have both similarities
and differences.
Similarities
In both speaking and some conversations, you are required to do the following:
1. Organize your thoughts and ideas and present them in a persuasive manner e.g. if you
want to teach a child about ethical or moral values, you need to organize you ideas and
decide how to teach the child the importance of these values. Similarly a speaker should
organize his/her thoughts before delivering a speech.
2. Tailor your message according to the audience present. In both cases, one needs to be
aware of the audience. The audience will not only determine the content but also the style
of delivering it. Communication needs to be audience specific to be effective.
3. In both, to emphasize your thoughts, you may use a few points in the form of stories or
anecdotes.
4. Both forms adapt to the feedback of the listener. For instance, you can see that a learner
has accepted or understood your point when he or she nodes. If you find that the learner
is not convinced, you try other ways to prove your point.
5. As you learn to speak more effectively in public, you also learn to communicate more
effectively in other situations too like in conversations.
Differences
1. Public speaking has more responsibility than ordinary conversation.
This is because it involves addressing a large audience with different backgrounds and different
knowledge of the subject.
2. Public speaking is highly structured. There is a structured way of starting and ending the
speech, whereas, in our everyday conversation, we don’t concentrate much on starting our talk
with a striking introduction.
3.In public speaking, the speaker accomplishes the purpose of the speech in the limited time
given to him. Unlike in ordinary conversations, the speaker doesn’t allow interruptions.
1. Public speaking demands more detailed preparation, organization and planning unlike
conversation, which is, in most cases, a spontaneous talk. In public speaking, the speaker
should be prepared for the questions that the audience might ask after the speech.
2. Public speaking requires more formal language than is required for a conversation. The use
of slang, Jargons, and bad grammar is not encouraged in public speaking.
3. Public speaking demands the proper use of both verbal and non-verbal cues. In a
conversation, people speak more casually paying less attention to intonation, voice and body
language, but special care has to be taken for these in the case of public speaking.
COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION OR PUBLIC SPEAKING ANXIETY (PSA)
Communication apprehension is the feeling of anxiety or dread that can overcome someone who
is facing a speech or interpersonal interaction. It is also called ‘stage fright’ or public speaking
anxiety (SPA). As noted by Mjomba (2008, p. 10), “ speech anxiety is not a preserve of certain
groups of people but cuts across all races and cultures”. Even experienced speakers feel
butterflies before they give a speech. According to O’Hair et al (2007) “feeling nervous before
making a speech is not only normal but also desirable”. Mjomba (2008) continues to note that
“Most individuals feel that communicating before an audience is highly risky, thus become
fearful about the possibility of failure that they begin to experience negative thoughts even
before entering a communication”. Hopson, Hanaki, and Lee, (2004), Mjomba (2008, p. 10)
and Lucas (2007), point out that speakers who experience PSA often display the following
behaviors:
i. A quavering or monotone voice that speaks too fast or too slow.
ii. Interruptions in speech fluency by halting and hunting for words.
iii. Dry moth and throat and repeated swallowing. The dryness of the mouth is
sometimes known as “cotton mouth.”
iv. Rigid and tense arms and hands
v. Awkward body movements like swaying, pacing and shuffling of feet.
vi. Sweating
vii. Avoiding eye contact with the audience.
viii. Uttering vocalized pauses like, “eh, well, you know” etc
ix. Standing as far away as possible from the audience.
x. Place as many obstacles as possible between them and the audience.
The degree to which people experience apprehension ranges form mild nervousness before
beginning to speak to a total inability to say anything. Very few individuals suffer from the more
serious form. With practice, you can learn to control or overcome your stage fright and use it to
sharpen your performance.
5.2.2.1 Strategies for Controlling Stage Fright
1. Select a topic that the audience will find interesting
2. Research your speech thoroughly.
3. Prepare adequately. The best solution for overcoming fear of speaking is preparation. Select
an interesting topic, research thoroughly; prepare the material in an organized and interesting
fashion and practice well. With this done, you will feel more confident. Confidence is a key to
controlling stage fright. If you feel you are in control of the situation, you have less reason to be
fearful.
4. Set realistic goals. It is also important to set realistic expectations for yourself. Your first few
speeches might not be perfect. After each speech, study the evaluation you receive, determine
areas you need to work on, and set clearly defined goals for improvement. Take public speaking
one step at a time just as you work for any other skill.
6. Walk to the podium calmly and confidently because acting confident can make you feel
confident.
7. Do not start talking until you feel confident up in front.
8. Look at the people in the audience before you start talking.
9. Focus on the friendly people in the audience like those who nod positively, smile, and look
attentive.
10. Focus on the message and not on yourself.
11. Be composed, get organized at the podium, and take a deep breath before beginning. When
the time comes to deliver your speech, don’t rush to begin speaking as soon as you get to the
front of the room. Once you get the first few words out, you will think less about yourself and
more about your subject.
12. Try to burn up some of your nervous energy before you start speaking. Take deep breaths to
relax. Clench your fists and relax them several times while you are waiting to speak. Try to
incorporate physical activity into the speech itself. Don’t be a afraid to use gestures or to move
about if it is natural to do so. Use visual aids or write on the board the most important points.
1. View the audience as your friends. Remember that the audience is not your enemy.
They share your fears. Seldom, if ever, does an audience laugh at a speaker,
 especially an inexperienced one. Your classmates all feel the same way as you do,
and they probably admire you for getting through the speech.
2. Think positive thoughts: Remind yourself of all the reasons that public speaking is
helpful personally, socially and professionally.
3. Visualize success
4. Enjoy the occasion.
5. Systematic desensitization: This is repeated exposure to small doses of whatever
makes you apprehensive. E.g. you can speak to a group of people more often but for
short periods of time.
15. Professional help. If the stage fright is acute, you can seek professional help from trained
psychologists or counselors.
IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
There are a number of benefits or skills that can be learnt or developed from public speaking and
they include.
1. Organizational skills. Organizational skills are an important part of composing a speech. In
fact, the ability to organize ideas is a skill you will employ before you ever write a speech. The
same is true for writing. The organizational skills so necessary in composing speeches carry over
to other areas that require outlining and planning, such as organizing notes or reporting on
science experiments.
2. Writing skills. Many of the principles you use to compose good speeches are the same as
those you need to write well. The practice you gain preparing speeches will improve your ability
to express your ideas on paper. You will learn how to get your audience’s attention, how to
organize clearly, and how to support your ideas or opinions. Theses aspects will benefit you
when you write essay assignments in college and write reports in your job.
3. Critical thinking skills. The current educational practices in this country have been accused of
having failed to develop critical and analytical thinking abilities in learners. Public speaking
skills and related listening skills provide valuable tools for the critical analysis of ideas. By
studying the use of supportive materials and persuasive strategies, you will learn to ask questions
about the claims speakers make. By learning to think critically, you will be better able to solve
both academic and job related problems and to fulfill your duties as a citizen.
4. Research skills. Public speaking will introduce you to a variety of research materials thus help
you develop research skills. These will be useful to you in a wide range of university and job
related activities.
5. Listening skills. Speaking and listening go hand in hand. Whenever someone gives a speech,
there is an audience to listen to it. By learning good speaking techniques, you will prepare
speeches that are easier for an audience to listen to and understand. You will also learn how to
listen to other speakers in order to hear all the key points. By sharpening your listening skills as
you analyze your classmates’ speeches, you will improve your listening skills in every other
listening situation.
6. Self-confidence. Learning the art of Public Speaking and how to give a speech in front of a
group develops your self confidence.
As you become more confident as a public speaker, you will gain confidence in your ability to
communicate in general. It will be easier to speak out in small groups and interviews will
become easier because you will have learnt techniques to prepare and present information about
yourself. To a large extent, success in life depends on your ability to feel good about yourself.
Succeeding as a public speaker can give your self – confidence a tremendous boost.
GENERAL ASPECTS OF SPEECH PLANNING
Speakers must consider the following four points when planning their speech.
i) Their subject
ii) Their audience
iii) Themselves as speakers
iv) Their occasion
Subject _The speaker’s direct and indirect experiences are the two general sources of speech
subjects. Direct experience is knowledge obtained from radio, TV, reading, and listening to
other people. Speakers can make a more effective presentation with subjects from their direct
experiences. Subjects may be divided into three types:
i) Those which inform e.g. basic principles of organization
ii) Those which persuade: e.g. Abortion should be punished
iii) Those which entertain e.g. do teachers have private lives?
Audiences. Speakers must consider the knowledge, and the needs of their audiences. They
should find out what the members of their audience already know about the subject. They should
also know whether the audience wants to hear about a subject. People usually listen only when
they think the speaker’s ideas will be of some benefit to them.
Occasions. Speakers should think carefully about the time and place of their speeches. Is the
occasion appropriate for the subject they have chosen?
SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF PLANNING A SPEECH
When speakers have given careful thought to their subject, audience, own personally and the
occasion, they are ready to plan the speech itself. The main aspects to take into consideration
when planning the speech itself are the following:
1. Purpose – The speaker should first select their general purpose. Do they wish to present
factual information to inform, to persuade or to entertain? With their general purpose in mind,
they should prepare a brief statement of their specific purpose.
2. The main ideas. The next step should be to select the main ideas or main divisions, of the
subject as stated in the specific purpose. In informative speeches, the main ideas should define
the specific purpose by answering the questions who, What, Where, When, Why, and how? In
persuasive speeches, the main ideas ought to be the principal reasons for the desired belief or
action. In entertaining speeches, the main ideas should be the divisions of the subject that can be
amusing to the audience.
3. Supporting material. After selecting the main ideas, speakers should choose supporting
material. This includes such things as description, narration, comparisons, examples, testimony,
statistics, demonstrations etc. The selection of main ideas and supporting material completes the
body (main part) of the speech.
4. Introduction. Speakers should next plan the introduction. This usually has two parts; the
opening and the statement of the specific purpose. In the opening, speakers catch the attention of
their audience and arouse interest in their subject. As Mjomba (2008) notes, “The introduction is
supposed to grab the attention and interest of the audience. Some of the attention grabbing
devices include: posing a question, telling a brief story, making a startling statement, or opening
with a question. Lucas, (2007) adds that, “the purpose of all these methods is to create a
dramatic, colorful opening that will grab the attention of the audience and make them want to
hear more. H e also points out that “in addition to gaining attention and interest, the introduction
should orient your listeners toward the subject matter of your speech.”
In the statement of specific purpose, they tell the audience precisely what they intend to do in
their speech and what value this topic has for the audience.
5. Body of the speech. The speech you will be giving could be organized either chronologically
or topically. According to Lucas (2007) “the basic structure of a speech that is chronologically
organized follows this pattern: First this happened, then this, then this. On the other hand, the
topical method of organization subdivides the speech into its natural, logical and conventional
parts.” For example, as Mjomba (2008, p. 18) notes, you may want to discuss your mother’s life
under three topics such as, her hobbies, career goals and family”.
6. Conclusion. Next comes the preparation of a conclusion. As Mjomba (2008, p. 19) notes, you
need to accomplish two tasks in the conclusion. First, you should let the audience know that you
are winding up your speech. The conclusion of your speech should have a sense of finality. The
second, the conclusion should reinforce the major idea of your speech. To make a strong impact
on your audience, your conclusion needs to be cleverly thought out. In informative speeches, the
conclusion should be a summary of the main ideas and of the specific purpose. In persuasive
speeches, the conclusion should combine a summary with a final appeal to the audience to accept
the arguments advanced. Entertaining speeches usually end on a point of great amusement.
6. Outline. After all those steps, the speaker should prepare an outline using the main points of
the speech.
DELIVERING THE SPEECH
Speakers may deliver their speeches directly from the outline, or they may use the outline as the
basis for a written speech. Skilled speakers usually prefer to speak from the outline without
writing the whole speech down.
The basic modes of delivering a speech include:
5.1. Manuscript mode.
5.2. Extemporaneous mode.
5.3. Impromptu mode
5.4. Memorized mode.
Let us look at each of these briefly.
Manuscript mode
This is when the entire speech has been written down and it is read word for word.
This is normally used in formal situations such as presenting a paper or speaking on radio or TV.
Reading from the text and looking intermittently at the listeners is probably the most common
way of delivering a political speech or making a presidential address. This method is chosen for
those occasions where accuracy is extremely crucial and the speaker cannot risk even the
slightest mistake or alteration in the meaning of the intended message read from a meticulously
prepared text. It is also used by people who are likely to be quoted like the politicians.
ADVANTAGES:
i. One can’t be misquoted
ii. One can’t forget what to say.
iii. One can do thorough research.
iv. You can retain a copy of the speech
DISADVANTAGES
i. The speaker can pay more attention to the written speech than to the audience.
Hence the audience will feel left out.
ii. It discourages eye contact with the audience.
iii. It discourages response to the audience feedback. It is not interactive.
Extemporaneous mode
This is called extempore delivery where a speaker delivers a speech from a prepared logical
outline. Here the speaker prepares everything except the exact words. This is the most effective
mode of delivering a speech. In this method, the speaker doesn’t write the whole text on paper,
but simply writes the main points in bold, big letters. He refers to them and builds up the
explanation and discussion as the speech progresses.
Advantages
1. It renders the speech the much needed spontaneity as the speaker can maintain his natural
speaking style.
2. Enables the speaker to maintain sustained eye-contact with the audience. This is possible
as he doesn’t have to read the whole text. He simply looks at the notes for a point and by
glancing at it and knowing what to say, is able to elaborate the point. This allows the speaker
to be in touch with his audience all the time as he speaks.
3. The speaker is able to adapt to the topics or situations for which he has not planned.
 4. When speaking extempore, the speaker has all the opportunity to respond to the cues from
the audience and to decide whether to proceed with further explanations on a given point or
not.
Because of these advantages, this mode of delivering a speech is the most frequently chosen
style. Despite the need for such thoroughness, this is the most commonly used model for
delivering a speech and remains the most flexible, versatile and expressive mode to deliver a
speech.
DISADVANTAGES
i. One might forget some of the supporting details.
ii. Digression. Depending on the audience response one might digress from
the main points.
iii. One can easily be misquoted.
iv. One can go beyond the allocated time.
Impromptu mode
‘Impromptu’ means on the sport, i.e. without prior preparation. Unlike carefully prepared
presentations, impromptu speaking tends to be relatively disorganized, imprecise and repetitive.
They are therefore justified only by necessity. E.g.
This method calls for a lot of spontaneity, quick assembling of ideas and thoughts, lots of
confidence and adequate knowledge. The speaker can adapt to the occasio It is used when one
attends a meeting and is unexpectedly called upon to speak. For example, when one notices there
is a member of parliament, a preacher or any other important guest and calls them to say
something to the audience.
and audience reactions.
DISADVANTAGES
i. You can be nervous since you were not prepared.
ii. You can then stammer and make mistakes.
iii. You might not have supporting details
iv. You can be misquoted. And so on.
ADVANTAGES
i. You can be interactive
ii. You can respond to the audience
 iii. You can maintain eye contact.
Tips for Organizing Your Thought Quickly for Impromptu Speaking
1. Try to remain calm and composed.
2. Quickly jot down a brief outline if possible.
3. First state the point or question or issue you are speaking about.
4. State the point or stand you want to take.
5. During delivery,maintain a strong and meaningful eye contact.
6. Speak clearly and maintain a moderate pace.
7. Use sign posts like “ my first point”, my second point” and other connectives to help the
audience to follow your speech.
8. Provide any supporting examples, statistics or testimony you have.
9. Finally sum up your points.
Memorized mode
This entails a speaker writing the whole text of their speech and memorizing it. It can be used in
drama when people are acting. It is also used by politicians, athletes, or business people who
speak to the same type of people every time. Sometimes they memorize without meaning to.
Speaking from a memorized text, however, has pitfalls, usually difficult to overcome, such as the
following:
Pitfalls of Memorized Delivery
1. Memorized speeches take away from the speaker the freedom and freshness of speech
delivery.
2. often lacks emphasis and proper force of impact as the speaker just gives back the text to
the audience Verbatim.
3. It is rigid and does not allow the speaker flexibility to adapt to unexpected situations and
requirements or to change the content according to the reaction of the audience while
delivering his speech.
4. In case a speaker misses a word, the entire speech can be thrown into disarray and probably
come to a stop.
5. It transmits a sense of monotony and stifles creativity. (Push 2007: 86)
ADVANTAGES
i. It allows the speaker enough eye contact with the audience.
ii. You can have enough body movement and gestures.
INFORMATIVE SPEECHES
This entails speaking with an internet to inform or shed light on a subject by sharing facts
that you have learned through experience, observation, writing and or, reading. Here, the
main focus of the speaker is to provide required information on an issue.
Providing information, is a task we perform hundreds of times each day and is one of the
most common and important forms of communication. Yet the techniques for providing
information efficiently, gracefully, and in a way that will interest the listener are not well
known. A public lecture, status report and briefing are common informative speeches.
Types of Informative Presentations
There are four main categories of informative presentations which are:
i) Reports – These describe the state of an operation. They are usually (but not always) given
by subordinates to their superiors to keep them informed and help them make decisions.
Some reports are frequent and informal. Others are formal.
ii) Briefings. This are short talks that inform an audience about specific area in which new
knowledge has been discovered. The executive chief of a restaurant might brief workers
about the details of a new menu. Nurses and police officers attend briefings before each shift
to update them on the current situation.
iii) Explanations. These increase the listener’s understanding of a subject. An orientation
ceremony for university freshers falls into this category. When implementing change in a
firm, good managers gather their employees and explain how the change will affect each one
of them. Sometimes explanations are aimed at audiences outside the company.
iv) Training. This teaches listeners how to do something. It can be informal or highly
structured, like ranging from the simple advice to transfer a telephone call to a week long
seminar on accounting principles for managers of a firm. Successful businesses recognize
the value of training.
Goals of an Informative Speech
According to Mckerrow et al (2003), your goal as an informative speaker is to make it easy
for your listeners to acquire and retain new information. In addition to using motivational
appeals, three other tactics will ensure that your listeners understand and remember what you
say. These are:
i. Clarity: The clearer your message, the better they will follow your ideas.
 ii. Association: Associating new ideas with familiar ones will also assist in their
understanding.
iii. Visualization: Visualizing ideas through words in a manner that is relevant to
their experience will help them to remember. Ultimately, your goal is to
communicate in a manner that is directly relevant to the lives of your listeners.
Organizing Informative Messages
The way you structure your message will affect how well the audience understands it. Make your
ideas easy to follow by starting with an overall picture, background information then emphasize
important points.
Developing Informative Speech
When you prepare a speech to inform, be aware of the situation, purpose, and audience before
you select a method of development.
Strategies for Effective Informative Speaking
1. Consider how relevant and useful the information will be for the audience. You must
motivate an audience to listen. In a sense, this is the persuasive element in an informative
speech. Before members of an audience are willing to listen, they must first be convinced
they need to know the information you are sharing.
2. Be sure the information is new to the audience. If you have conducted a thorough audience
analysis, this shouldn’t be a problem. If the audience already knows all or most of what you
are saying; you haven’t achieved the purpose of an informative speech. You haven’t
increased the audience’s knowledge of a topic or understanding of it.
3. Be sure that your introduction gets the audience’s attention, creates, interests, and makes the
topic clear. It should also forecast the main ideas.
4. Your conclusion should summarize the major points.
5. Avoid information overload. Remember that you can’t cover everything about a topic.
Narrow the topic and select the information that is most relevant to the audience. If you give
the audience too much information, especially in a new topic, you will probably lose their
attention (Diana 1989:340).
6. Cover only necessary information – As an informative speaker, you will usually be far more
knowledgeable about the topic than the audience to whom you speak. This knowledge is both a
 blessing and a potential curse. If you cover your topic in too much detail, you are likely to bore
or even antagonize your listeners.
7. Avoid jargon. If you overwhelm your audience with too much specialized terminology,
they will become so confused and bored. Tell people what they need to know and in
language they will understand.
8. Link the topic to the audience. Make your topic audience specific and relevant.
9. Link the familiar to the unfamiliar. Research has shown that people have best chance of
new concept when it bears some relationship to information they already know. Without a
familiar reference point, listeners may have trouble understanding even a clear definition.
10. Involve the Audience. Listeners who are actively involved in a presentation will
understand and remember the material far better than will passive listeners.
PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
Persuasion refers to communication intended to change attitudes or behaviors. It means getting the
audience to agree with you or share your view.. To persuade the audience, a public speaker must
interest and inform them.
THE GOAL OF A PERSUASIVE SPEECH
The goal of the speech is to persuade, or to change, create or reinforce attitudes or behavior. A
good persuasive strategy, a plan used to convince people of a speaker’s opinion, begins with
knowing your audience. Consider what is appropriate, appealing and understandable to that
audience and then build your argument.
1. Types of Persuasive Presentations
Most persuasive presentations in business fall into one of the following four categories:
i) Sales presentation
ii) Proposals
iii) Motivational speeches
iv) Good willing speeches
v) Political campaigns
vi) Negotiation and conflict management and several others.
Sales Presentations. Sales people make presentations about such diverse goods and services as
real estate, insurance, merchandize, advertising space etc.
Proposals. In an organization, the goal of most proposals is to persuade high management to
take action. Many involve plans for a new program such as a new product line. Others involve
requests for resources like additional staff, larger budgets or new equipment.
Motivational Speeches. These can combine the most oppressive elements of a bad sermon and a
high school pep rally, at their worst. On the other hand, when delivered effectively and at the
proper time, such presentations can produce good results.
Goodwill Speeches. Representatives of organizations frequently speak to audience to promote
interest or support for their organizations. A corporate recruiter addressing graduating seniors
and a bank economist explaining economic forecasts are making speeches of goodwill. So is the
utility company representative addressing the press after an accident.
Occasions when you can use a persuasive speech
ii. In job interviews where you will be trying to persuade the employer that you
are the best person for the job.
iii. Work groups where you will need to convince your co-workers or boss the
best way to solve a problem.
iv. As a member of your community you will have to speak persuasively as a
member of PTA, church group or charity organizations on many issues.
v. Leadership requires that you have persuasive skills.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
As Mjomba (2008, p. 80) notes, “when attempting to persuade an audience, ethical
considerations should play a role in your speech planning process”. “Ethics, often defined as a
set of shared believes about what behaviors are correct or incorrect, are a vital component of any
public speech” (Turman & Fraleigh, 2003). There is more to public speaking than just presenting
your speech in a way that will create the highest degree of agreement from your audience.
Turman and Fraleigh (2003) argue that “speakers should ethically treat their audience the same
way they would wish to be treated as an audience member”. Bearing this in mind, you are
expected among other things to cite your sources properly, not to alter data or quotations to
appear more persuasive. You should have your audience’s bet interest at heart.
Organizing Persuasive Message
The way you structure your message plays a major role in determining how successful you will
be at persuading an audience. The various organizational plans with the consideration for
choosing each are.
1.Problem – solution . This plan first persuades the audience that something is wrong with the
present situation and then suggests how to remedy the situation. This plan works especially well
when your audience does not feel a strong need to change from the status quo and needs
convincing that a problem exists.
2. Comparative advantages. A comparative advantage organization plan, puts several
alternatives side by side to show why yours is the best. This strategy is especially useful when
the audience is considering an idea that competes with the one you are advocating.
3. Criteria satisfaction. This plan sets up criteria that the audience will accept and then shows
how your idea or product meets the criteria.. It does not usually consider alternative ideas. Thus
it is a good approach when your audience isn’t likely to think of alternative plans.
4.Motivated sequence. The motivated – sequence organizational plan has a five step-scheme
designed to boost the involvement and interest of the audience. These are:
i) Attention – Capture the attention of the audience by introducing the problem in an
interesting manner.
ii) Need – Explain the problem clearly and completely
iii) Satisfaction – present you solution to the problem. Provide enough support to prove
that the solution is workable and that it will indeed solve the problem.
iv) Visualization – describe clearly what will happen if your proposal is adopted so that
the audience has a clear mental picture of how the proposal will solve the problem.
v) Action. Call for a response from your audience. Explain what listeners can do to solve
the problem.
Strategies of Effective Persuasion
A presentation’s effectiveness in persuading the audience will be fostered it it takes advantage of
the following principles:
1. Appeal to the needs of your audience.
2. Have a realistic goal – Even the best presentation can’t accomplish miracles – Asking
audience members to accept an idea that they strongly oppose can backfire. Social
scientists have refined this commonsense principle into social judgment theory. This
 theory helps a speaker decide how to craft their arguments by identifying the range of
possible opinions listeners might have about a speaker’s argument. The theory teaches a
very practical lesson about how much to ask from your audience. Rather than asking for
their acceptance of your proposal, you can ask them to simply recognize the fact.
3. Focus appeals on the critical audience segment – sometimes one or two listeners have the
power to approve or reject your appeal. In such cases, it is important to identify the
interests, needs, attitudes and prejudices of the key decision makers and then focus your
appeal towards them.
4. Defer the Thesis with a Hostile Audience. For example, if you believe the thesis will not
be received well or if an audience hears the news too early they will be too upset to
accept or even listen to it. However, a presentation with a deferred thesis still needs an
introduction to capture the attention of the audience, and to demonstrate the importance
of the topic and orient the listeners to what will follow.
5. Present enough evidence to support claims. Give a precedent, or a factual example from
the past that supports your view of the current situation. In general, positive precedents
are more effective and appealing. You may use examples or stories, statistics,
comparisons, or citations. When your goals are to persuade an audience, the generous
use of support is especially important.
6. Respond to objections i.e. consider citing opposing ideas. Anticipate opposing views and
answer these objections in your presentation. Research indicates that it is generally better
to mention and then refute ideas that oppose yours than to ignore them. There are three
situation when it is especially important to foreworn listeners about opposing ideas.
These are:
i. When the Audience disagrees with your position – with hostile listeners, it’s wise
to compare their position and yours, showing the desirability for your thesis.
ii. When the audience knows both sides of the issue.
iii. When the audience will soon hear your viewpoint criticized or another one
promoted.
7. Call for fairness. Ask listeners to see beyond their disagreements and consider what is
fair and just.
 8. Adapt to the cultural style of your Audience. The cultural background of your listeners
may affect the way they respond to various types of persuasive appeals e.g. intensity or
emotional appeals. For example, the traditional European – American ideal situation is to
communicate without becoming too excited, while other cultures, like those of most
Africans may be more expressive.
9. Predict Results. This helps the audience to see the possible results that could occur from
deciding or not deciding in your favor.
NB: To convince listeners of your opinion, use and personalize strategies that are most
appropriate to your audience and situation.
Speaker’s Credibility
Credibility is the persuasive force that comes from the audience’s belief in and respect for the
speaker. When your audience has little time or inclination to examine your evidence and
reasoning in detail, it will rely almost exclusively on your credibility to decide whether to accept
your claims.
A speaker whom the audience considers credible will be readily acceptable. In order to succeed
as a public speaker, therefore, you need to build a rapport with your audience. It doesn’t
necessarily mean that the audience likes you. This means you have done what is necessary to
make you a good speaker. You have to make sure that the audience trusts in what you have to
say and they feel that you care for them. A speaker’s credibility is, in fact, the epitome of what
they already know about the speaker, the impression the speaker makes during the speech and
how the speaker is introduced or introduces him/herself. In public speaking situations, it
contributes immediately to the effectiveness of the speech. A speaker whom the audience
considers credible will be readily acceptable.
Factors that affect a Speaker’s Credibility are:
Sociability, Dynamism, Physical attractiveness, Expertise, Consistency, Honesty, Concern for
the message, and Concern for listeners.
Tips for Building Speaker’s Credibility
As everything you say in a speech will affect your credibility, you should say and do things in
such a way that it will make you appear capable and trustworthy. The following tips will help:
1. Demonstrate your competence by demonstrating your knowledge of the subject, making your
credentials known and by demonstrating your abilities.
2. Good organization will improve credibility.
3. Use appropriate, clear and vivid language.
4. Ensure fluent and dynamic delivery with a strong evidence and reasoning.
5. Earn the trust of your audience by honesty and impartiality on your part.
6. Emphasize your similarity to the audience. Audiences are most willing to accept the ideas of a
speaker whose attitudes and behaviors are similar to their own. Establish common ground
between you and listeners early in your presentation.
7. Increase your Appeal to the Audience – Listeners are more persuaded by speakers they find
appealing in some way e.g. appearance.
8. Demonstrate your sincerity. Speakers perceived as believing strongly in their subjects are
more persuasive than unenthusiastic ones. Sincerity is only impressive if the audience detects it;
however, unfortunately, some speakers don’t show their enthusiasm and so reduce their
effectiveness.
Features of the Voice that can be used for Effective Public Speaking
As Mjomba (2008, p.58) notes, “your voice is a powerful instrument of expression. Used
properly, it should express who you are and convey your message in a way that engages the
listeners. Whatever your voice, you can be sure it is unique”. According to Lucas, (2007), The
eight aspects of speech you should work on to control are: volume, pitch, rate, pauses, variety,
pronunciation, articulation, and dialect.
i) . Volume: This is the loudness or softness of the speaker’s voice. If you speak too loudly, your
speakers may think you are not courteous. If you speak too softly, they will not understand, and
they might think you are not confident or you are not well prepared. Balance your volume to suit
your audience and the occasion.
ii). Pitch : These are the vocal notes we hit while we speak. It is the highness or lowness of the
speaker’s voice. Chanes in pitch are known as reflections, They voice luster, warmth, and
vitality. It is the inflection in your voice that reveals whether you are asking a question or making
a statement, and whether you are being sincere or sarcastic. People who do not use inflection to
convey meaning and emotion are said to speak in monotones, a constant pitch, or constant tone
of voice.
iii). Rate: This is the speed at which a person speaks. Two obvious faults to avoid are speaking
so slowly that your listeners become bored or so quickly that they lose track of your ideas.
iv). Pauses. This is the intended silence during a speech. Learning how and when to pause is a
major challenge to most beginning speakers. As you gain more experience in public speaking,
you will discover how useful a pause can be. It can signal the end of a thought unit, give an idea
time to sink in, and lend dramatic impact to a statement.
v). Vocal variety: This is the changes in a speakers’ rate, pitch, and volume that give the voice
variety and expressiveness. As Mjomba (2008, p. 58) puts it, “A boring, unchanging voice is just
as bad to speech making as a boring unchanging routine is to daily life”.
vi. Pronunciation: Pronouncing words in English can be very difficult for students who are not
native speakers of the language. Practicing your speech in front of as many trusted friends as you
can helps you to collect your pronunciations. If you have any doubts about the pronunciation of a
word, check it in the dictionary.
vii). Articulation: This is the physical production of particular speech sounds like saying “R”
instead of “L”. Work on identifying and eliminating your most common errors. Persistent
practice can eliminate this.
viii). Dialect: This is a variety of language distinguished by variations of accent, grammar, or
vocabulary. There is no such thing as a right or wrong dialect (Mjomba, 2008, p. 59). Our
regional or ethnic background usually shapes our dialect. Every dialect is “right” for the people
who use it. When is a given dialect appropriate in public speaking? The answer depends above
all on the composition of your audience.
The body aspects of speech delivery.
The following four aspects, Posture, facial expression, gestures, and eye contact, all affect the
way listeners respond to you as a speaker. The study of these and other motions used to
communicate is called kinesics. Lucas (2007) points out the major aspects of physical actions
that will affect the outcome of your speech. These are as follows:
i. Personal Appearance: A number of studies have confirmed that
appearance plays an important role in speech making. Listeners always see
you before they hear you. Regardless of the speaking situation, you should
try to evoke a favorable first impression. An impression that is likely to
make the listeners be more receptive to what you say.
ii. Create a sense of movement: Inexperienced public speakers are not sure
about what to do with their body while giving a speech. Unless your
 movement is restricted by the microphone, or the podium, do not stay in
one fixed place. Have an appropriate and meaningful movement. Speakers
should strive to face the audience even as they move. Speakers who write
on the board as they speak have to try not to show their back to the
audience. This can be achieved either by writing the information on the
board before speaking or by using a poster, power point etc.
iii. Gestures: These are the motion of a speaker’s hands or arms during a
speech. Competent gestures can add to the impact of the speech. However,
whatever gestures you make, they should not draw attention to you and
distract the listeners from your message. They should appear natural and
spontaneous, and help to clarify or reinforce your ideas, and they should
be suited to the audience and the occasion.
iv. Eye- contact: This is the sustained and meaningful contact with your eyes.
It can show approval or disapproval. As Mjomba (2008, p. 60) points out,
“messages from the manipulation of the eyeballs are so revealing that we
think of the eyes as the windows of the soul. The audience look at them to
help them measure the truthfulness, intelligence, attitudes and feelings of a
speaker”.
Other Speech Enhancing Cues
These are communication cues that may be employed to make a speech more effective. They
include:
i) Facial expressions to emphasize points.
ii) Analogies –to help create familiar or identifiable situations in an interesting way that
amuses the audience and hooks their attention.
iii) Imagery, symbolism to help communicate the message in a veiled or hidden way that
creates interest and makes the audience think deeply and creatively.
Functions of Non- verbal Behavior
According to Miles Peterson, (2001) non -verbal behavior serves five functions
i). providing information or elaborating a verbal statement
ii) Regulating interactions such as pointing to someone
iii) Expressing liking e.g. smiling or touching someone on the shoulder
 iv) Exercising social control, reinforcing social rules.
v) Facilitating goals as when demonstrating a skill that requires motor activity or gesturing.
Relationship between Verbal and Non -verbal Communication
The relationship is four sold:
i) Substitution – The two may be used in place of each other
ii) Complementary relationship – Verbal and non- verbal communication complement
each other.
iii) Conflicting relationship – At times they conflict as non- verbal cues tend to be more
reliable.
iv) Accenting relationship – they also stress or add emphasis.
The above functions are not mutually exclusive. There is some overlap and non- verbal cues may
serve more than one function depending on how they are used.
Non- verbal communication cues are thus very useful. If we are to be effective in our
communication, and public speaking in particular, non -verbal cues may be used to reinforce
verbal communication. .
Visual aids.
This is anything that is used to enhance speech delivery. It can include the way
you dress, e.g. wearing a police uniform when walking about the police, bring a
guitar to talk about music etc.
Types of visual aid.
I. Chalk or white board to write the topic and the main ideas of your
speech.
II. Posters: The information in the poser should be the one that is
difficult to convey or understand through listening.
III. Pie chart, bar graphs and line graphs to compare and contrast
different types of information e.g. different academic performance
for different years.
IV. Overhead projectors, movies, slides, power points etc.
Helpful hints for using visual aids.
 I. Visual aids like the facts in your speech need documentation. You
can include the documentation on the visual aid to show the listeners
where you got it from.
II. Do not talk to your visual aid. Keep eyes on your audience.
III. Display visual aids only when using them, otherwise they will
distract the audience.
IV. Make sure that everyone in the room can see the visual aid. Leave
the visual aid long enough for the complete assimilation of the
information by the audience. It is bad to have a half-read visual aid
taken away.
V. Use a pointer to point at your visual aid. This prevents you from
blocking the audience.
Topic Summary
This section has focused on the place of Public Speaking as a component of Communication
Skills. More precisely, it treated a number of issues in public speaking e.g. stage fright, speech
preparation and organization, non-verbal cues, informative and persuasive speeches. Essential
strategies and suggestions have been given for the development and use of these elements in
fostering good public speaking skills. We hope you found them useful.
Topic Review Questions
v. Define public speaking
vi. Compare and contrast public speaking and conversation
vii. Describe the strategies that you would use to overcome communication
apprehension/stage fright.
viii. Discuss the four basic modes of delivering a speech.
ix. State four advantages of extempore speaking.
x. What are the main undoing of a memorized speech delivery?
xi. Identify five features of voice that can be used to make a speech lively.
xii. Discuss the various goals of information speaking.
xiii. Discuss the strategies for effective public speaking.
xiv. Identify four types of persuasive presentations
xv. What strategies would you use to build your credibility as a speaker?