Channa Chanrith Unit Operation

M2, S2, Y3, BioE Lesson: Freezing

1. Freezing is a common method of preserving food that aims to extend shelf life, maintain
nutrition, and prevent spoilage.
• Halting Microbial Growth: Cold temperatures slow or stop microorganism growth, reducing
food spoilage and illnesses.
• Slowing Biochemical Reactions: Enzymatic reactions within the food are also significantly
slowed down when the food is frozen.
• Preserving Nutritional Content: Freezing preserves food nutrients better than storing at
room temperature or refrigerating.
• Extending Shelf Life: Freezing preserves food and makes it last longer.
2. Frozen foods are important in everyday diets due to convenience and year-round availability.
There are several main groups of these foods:
• Fruits and Vegetables: Frozen fruits and vegetables maintain their nutrients and taste thanks
to peak ripeness. They consist of items such as berries, peas, corn, broccoli, spinach, mango
chunks, and mixed fruits/vegetables.
• Meat and Poultry: Beef, chicken, turkey, pork, and fish can be frozen in different forms, such
as whole, sliced, diced, or made into products like burgers and meatballs.
• Ready Meals: Many prepared frozen dishes available, from simple to complex.
• Seafood: Frozen seafood is often necessary for transportation to maintain freshness.
• Bakery and Dough Products: Includes bread, rolls, pastries, and other frozen dough
products.
• Desserts: Ice cream and other frozen desserts, as well as frozen pastries or cakes, fall into
this category.
• Protein Alternatives: This category includes plant-based meat alternatives, such as veggie
burgers and soy-protein products.
• Convenience Foods: This includes a broad range of foods such as french fries, nuggets,
appetizers, and snacks that are pre-cooked and require minimal preparation time.
3. Freezing food removes heat to make it reach a temperature below its freezing point, divided
into two stages with different heat types.
• Removal of Sensible Heat: Freezing begins by lowering the temperature of the food, without
changing its state. This process, called sensible heat, causes temperature changes.
• Removal of Latent Heat: Remove heat to freeze food product, forming ice. This hidden heat
causes a change in state without a change in temperature.

Refrigeration systems remove heat energy from food by utilizing evaporation and condensation
principles. A refrigerant evaporates, absorbing heat from the food, and cooling it. The refrigerant is then
compressed and condensed, releasing the heat and returning to a liquid state.

The freezing rate and the size of ice crystals have a significant impact on the quality of frozen
food. Quick freezing forms smaller ice crystals, reducing cell damage and preserving texture and
nutrients post-thawing.

4. Turning water into solid form is called freezing. Ice crystal formation involves nucleation, which
can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
 • Homogeneous Nucleation: Supercooled water forms a nucleus for ice crystal growth,
requiring very low temperatures due to the thermodynamically unfavorable initial
formation.
• Heterogeneous Nucleation: Ice nucleation in nature and in our freezers commonly occurs
on a foreign particle, like dust, fiber, bacteria, or container walls. This surface acts as a
template, facilitating solid crystal lattice formation of ice.

Nucleation types: spontaneous or on a surface. Crucial nucleus role in ice crystal

formation process. Water molecules arrange onto nucleus, and ice crystal grows until solid or
melting point is reached.

Controlling nucleation is crucial in various applications, such as freezing food, as it

affects the ice crystal size and texture of the food.

5. Glass Transition Temperature:

• Glass transition temperature (Tg) is a critical property of amorphous materials, including
some foods. Below Tg, the material is rigid and brittle, while above Tg it becomes rubbery
or viscous. It is a kinetic phenomenon related to molecular mobility.

The Tg is important for food processing and storage. It affects frozen foods by
preventing ice crystal growth when the temperature goes below it.

• Difference between Glass and Ice Crystal:

The formation of glass and ice crystal are two different ways in which water might
solidify:

Ice Crystals: Water freezes in a structured pattern, forming ice crystals. This is common
in the food industry.

Glass: Glassy water, or amorphous ice, lacks regular molecular structure. It forms in
supercooled or rapidly frozen water, creating a non-crystalline state below the glass transition
temperature.

In food preservation, avoiding ice crystal formation is important as it can damage the
food's texture and quality. Rapid freezing or inducing vitrification can help maintain food quality.

6. Calculating the freezing time for food products is a complex process as it depends on a number
of factors. Here are some of the aspects that need consideration:
• Initial Temperature of the Food: Food temperature before freezing affects freezing time.
Higher initial temperature leads to longer freezing time.
• Final Temperature: Target temperature for fully frozen food is lower than the freezing
point of most food products.
• Shape and Size of the Food: The shape and size of the food affect the freezing time because
they determine the surface area to volume ratio. Thin, flat items will freeze faster than
bulky items.
• Thermal Properties of the Food: Specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and latent
heat of fusion vary based on food composition.
 •Freezing Method and Conditions: The method of freezing (air blast, immersion, plate,
cryogenic, etc.) and the conditions in the freezer (temperature, air velocity, etc.) can
significantly affect the freezing time.
• Packaging: The material and thickness of the packaging can impact heat transfer and thus
the freezing time.
7. When a frozen food product is thawed, several physical and chemical changes occur:
• Ice Melting: Melting ice crystals occur when temperature rises above freezing point,
reversing the freezing process.
• Rehydration of Cells: Melted ice water can be absorbed by food cells, restoring texture and
juiciness. However, if ice crystals were large due to slow freezing, cell walls may rupture,
resulting in loss of cellular water and negatively impacting texture and moisture.
• Chemical Changes: Higher temperature restarts enzymatic reactions, causing food quality
changes like discoloration and taste alterations.
• Microbial Activity: Any bacteria, yeasts, or molds that were present in the food before
freezing and survived the freezing process can become active again as the food thaws. This
is why it's important to thaw foods in a controlled manner, often in the refrigerator, to limit
microbial growth.
• Texture and Nutritional Changes: Ice crystal formation during freezing can change the
texture of food when it thaws, leaching out nutrients into the produced liquid.
• Drip Loss: Ice crystals melting can cause drip loss in thawed food, leading to dry texture and
weight loss.
8. When selecting freezing equipment for food processing, several factors need to be considered:
• Type of Food: Foods have varying freezing requirements. Berries can use Individual Quick
Freezing (IQF), while whole turkeys may need to blast freezing.
• Production Capacity: Freezing equipment size depends on the amount of food to be frozen.
Small-scale needs blast freezers; larger production requires tunnel or spiral freezers.
• Freezing Time: Certain products need quick freezing to keep their quality, while others can
handle slower freezing. Quick freezing equipment like plate freezers and liquid nitrogen
freezers may be necessary for products greatly impacted by freezing time.
• Initial and Final Temperature: The initial temperature of the product and the desired final
temperature will affect the choice of equipment and freezing method.
• Space Constraints: Consider the facility's size and configuration when installing the freezer.
Certain types of freezers, such as spiral or tunnel freezers, need more space.
• Energy Efficiency: Freezing requires a lot of energy, so the efficiency of the equipment is
important for cost and environmental reasons.
• Regulations and Food Safety: Equipment must comply with health and safety regulations,
including hygienic design for effective cleaning and prevention of pathogen buildup.
• Budget: The cost of the equipment, including purchase price, operating costs, and
maintenance costs, must fit within the budget of the operation.
• Flexibility: If you handle a variety of products, a freezer that can be adjusted to different
product types and freezing requirements might be the best choice.
• Reliability and After-sales Service: Robust equipment with reliable after-sales service
reduces the risk of costly downtime.
9. Here are the differences between mechanical refrigerators, cryogenic freezers, and combined
mechanical and cryogenic freezing systems:
• Mechanical Refrigerators: Freezers use a refrigeration cycle with a refrigerant to absorb
heat from inside and release it outside. They work for standard food freezing but may not
be ideal for very fast freezing and use a lot of energy.
• Cryogenic Freezers: Cryogenic freezing uses very cold substances like liquid nitrogen or
carbon dioxide for rapid freezing, resulting in higher quality frozen foods.
• Combined Mechanical and Cryogenic Freezing: Applications can combine advantages of
both cryogenic and mechanical systems. One approach is to rapidly freeze using cryogenic
freezer, then store with mechanical system. Another is to use mechanical cooling for low
temperature and cryogenic substances for rapid freeze. This optimizes costs and freezing
quality for certain applications.
10. Mechanical freezers are the most commonly used freezing systems in the food industry. They
work by using a refrigeration cycle to remove heat from the product and achieve freezing. Here
are some types of mechanical freezers:
• Air Blast Freezers: Freezers circulate cold air to freeze products faster. They can be batched
or continuous systems.
• Plate Freezers: In these systems, the product is cooled with a refrigerant between metal
plates to provide high heat transfer rates. Often used for freezing flat or packaged
products.
• Belt/Tunnel Freezers: Freezers like air blast freezers, but with conveyor belts for
continuous freezing of large quantities of product.
• Spiral Freezers: Air blast freezer with spiral conveyor allows for efficient freezing of
products in a small area. Spiral design ensures longer freezing times when needed.
• Fluidized Bed Freezers: Freezers use cold air flow to freeze small products evenly.
• Impingement Freezers: Modified air blast freezers use high-velocity air jets for rapid heat
transfer, benefitting thin and flat products.
• Cryomechanical Freezers: It combines cryogenic freezing with mechanical freezers for rapid
surface freezing and core freezing.
11. Cryogenic freezers use liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide to achieve much lower temperatures
than mechanical refrigeration systems. Here are some types of cryogenic freezers:
• Immersion/Spray Freezers: Freezers use cryogenic liquid to rapidly freeze food like shrimp
or berries.
• Tunnel Freezers: Similar to air blast tunnel freezers, cryogenic freezers use cold gases to
quickly freeze food products on a conveyor belt. They are versatile for various products.
• Spiral Freezers: Cryogenic gas is used instead of cold air in spiral conveyor systems for
continuous freezing.
• Cabinet Freezers: Food loaded into cabinet and exposed to cryogenic gas in batch systems.
Used for smaller operations or specialty products.
12. Cryoprotectants prevent freezing damage by interacting with water molecules, reducing ice
formation and replacing water in cells. They lower the freezing point, slow down cooling, and
prevent ice crystal formation, reducing cell damage. There are several types of cryoprotectants:
 • Permeating Cryoprotectants: Small molecules that penetrate cell membrane include
glycerol, ethylene glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and propylene glycol. These are used
in cryopreservation of sperm, eggs, or embryos in fertility treatments.
• Non-Permeating Cryoprotectants: Large molecules like sucrose, dextran, and PVP protect
cells by balancing extracellular ice formation.
13. Thawing food requires careful handling to ensure quality and safety. Here are the main points to
consider:
• Safety: Incorrect thawing can cause harmful bacteria to grow. To prevent this, thaw food at
safe temperatures, like in the fridge, to avoid rapid bacterial multiplication.
• Quality: Thawing method and rate affect food quality. Slow thawing preserves texture and
flavor better than rapid thawing.
• Preventing Drip Loss: Thawing products can release moisture, causing weight loss and
affecting texture and quality.
• Planning Ahead: Thawing takes time. Production schedules in commercial operations must
consider thawing times to ensure ready product for production.
Commercially, thawing is typically achieved by one of several methods:
• Air Thawing: Product exposed to circulating air for controlled thawing. Commonly used for
simplicity and effectiveness, using air thawing rooms or cabinets.
• Water Thawing: Product is thawed faster in water due to higher heat transfer. Water
temperature, flow rate, and immersion duration must be controlled to prevent damage
and microbial growth.
• Microwave or Radio Frequency Thawing: Uses electromagnetic waves to rapidly thaw
products, but requires specialized equipment and may result in uneven thawing.
14. Freezing can have various effects on the quality attributes of food products, including flavor,
color, nutrition, and texture:
• Flavor: Freezing retains flavor, but changes can occur due to oxidation or absorption of
flavors from other foods in the freezer.
• Color: Freezing preserves food color, but fruits and vegetables may still brown. Blanching
before freezing stops enzymes and prevents discoloration.
• Nutrition: Freezing preserves nutritional content, but nutrient loss can occur over time,
particularly for vitamins like vitamin C and B.
• Texture: Freezing impacts texture. Water freezes and forms ice crystals. Large crystals from
slow freezing rupture cell walls, resulting in a mushy texture when thawed. Fast freezing
creates smaller crystals and preserves the original texture.
15. Frozen food expands due to the molecular arrangement of water when it turns into ice. Water
molecules arrange into a regular hexagonal pattern when freezing, which occupies more space
and increases volume. This property of water is also why ice floats on water. Food products can
undergo physical changes when their volume increases. These changes can include the breaking
of cell walls, which in turn affects the texture. Rapid freezing is preferred in food preservation to
form smaller ice crystals and maintain the original texture.
16. Frozen storage can have various effects on the chemical and nutritional profile of food:
• Pigments: Freezing preserves food color but oxidation and enzymes can cause changes, like
browning in fruits and vegetables during storage.
 • Vitamins: The effect of freezing on vitamins varies by type. Water-soluble vitamins, such
as vitamin C, can degrade during freezing, but losses are minor. Fat-soluble vitamins like
A, D, E, and K are preserved well when frozen.
• Enzyme Activity: Freezing slows enzymatic reactions but doesn't fully deactivate
enzymes. Some activity may persist, especially during freeze-thaw cycles. Blanching
fruits and vegetables before freezing helps prevent enzyme activity and changes during
storage.
• Oxidation of Lipids: Freezing slows lipid oxidation, but it can still happen during frozen
storage. Packaging is crucial to prevent oxidation by blocking light and reducing oxygen
exposure.
17. Effect of Thawing on Food Quality:

Thawing is the process of transforming food from a frozen state to a normal temperature state.
If not done correctly, it can lead to various changes in food quality:

• Texture: Ice crystals formed during freezing can damage cell structures of the food.
When thawed, these damaged cells can lose their natural firmness leading to a softer
texture.
• Color: Color changes can occur due to enzyme activity which can resume during
thawing, leading to browning in certain foods.
• Taste and Nutritional Value: Changes in taste can occur due to enzyme activity, drip loss,
and potential microbial growth. Drip loss can leach out certain water-soluble vitamins,
impacting the nutritional value of the food.

Drip Loss and Its Effects:

Drip loss refers to the amount of water that is released from food products during thawing. The
freezing process can cause damage to cellular structures, which then leads to the release of
water upon thawing. Drip loss can affect food quality in several ways:

• Nutrients: Water-soluble nutrients can be lost in the drip, leading to a reduction in

nutritional value.
• Enzyme Activity: The loss of water can concentrate enzymes and other components,
potentially leading to increased enzymatic activity.
• Microbial Growth: If the drip is not properly managed, it can provide a favorable
environment for microbial growth, potentially leading to food spoilage or safety
concerns.

Best Method to Thaw Food Products:

The best way to thaw food products varies depending on the type of food, but generally,
thawing in the refrigerator is considered as the safest method. It allows foods to thaw at a
consistent, safe temperature, which minimizes the risk of microbial growth. However, it
 requires planning as it can take several hours to days, depending on the size and density of the
food product.

Microwave & Radio Frequency Heaters:

Microwave and radio frequency heaters are electromagnetic heating methods used for rapid
thawing of foods.

• Microwave Heaters: They work by generating electromagnetic waves at microwave

frequencies. These waves penetrate the food and their energy is absorbed by water
and fat molecules, causing them to vibrate which produces heat and thereby cooks or
thaws the food.
• Radio Frequency Heaters: They operate at lower frequencies than microwaves. The
heating is based on the same principal of vibration of molecules, but the lower
frequency allows deeper penetration into the product, making it useful for thicker
foods.

Difference between Microwave, Conductive and Convective Heating:

• Microwave Heating: The heat is generated by the vibration of water and fat molecules
due to absorption of microwave energy, enabling fast and volumetric heating.
• Conductive Heating: Heat is transferred within the food product or from a hot surface
to the food by direct molecular contact. The heat moves from high-temperature areas
to lower-temperature areas. This is slower than microwave heating as it depends on
the heat conductivity of the food
• Convective Heating: Heat is transferred by the movement of air or liquid molecules. In
an oven, for example, heated air circulates around and transfers heat to the food. Like
conductive heating, it is slower than microwave heating.

Effect of Thawing by Microwave Heating on Foods:

Microwave thawing is fast and efficient but it may result in uneven thawing if not properly
managed, leading to parts of the food being overheated while other parts remain frozen. This
uneven heating can lead to non-uniform quality, potential loss of nutrients, and can pose food
safety risks if parts of the food reach temperatures that allow for microbial growth. Therefore,
care should be taken to ensure even thawing when employing microwave heating.

18. Freezing preserves food by impacting microorganisms that can spoil food or cause foodborne
illnesses.
• Reduced Metabolic Activity: Freezing slows or stops microorganisms' metabolic
activities, including growth and reproduction, making them dormant.
• Physical Damage: Ice crystals can harm microorganisms by breaking cell membranes and
causing dehydration, ultimately leading to their death.
• Reduced Available Water: Freezing ice prevents microbial growth by making water
unavailable for metabolic reactions.
• Lethal Temperatures: Some microorganisms cannot survive the freezing temperatures
of freezing and may be killed during the process.
19. Microorganisms are affected by freezing temperatures, which can impair their functions or
cause death. The response varies depending on the type of microorganism and conditions.
• Temperature Shock: Temperature shock can harm microbial cells by disrupting their
structure and function. Proteins and cellular components may denature or stop working
properly. Certain microorganisms produce cold-shock proteins to survive temperature
shock, but if the shock is severe or prolonged, it can be fatal.
• Concentration of Extracellular Solutes: Freezing forms ice crystals in and around cells,
leaving behind concentrated solutes in the remaining water. This creates a
hyperosmotic environment that can cause osmotic stress, leading to dehydration,
inhibition of microbial activity or death.
• Toxicity of Intracellular Solutes: Some microorganisms accumulate compatible solutes or
cryoprotectants to counteract extracellular solute concentration. However, excessive or
ineffective metabolism of these intracellular solutes can be toxic and impair cellular
functions.
• Dehydration: Ice crystals and high solute concentrations can dehydrate microbial cells,
leading to damage and collapse.
• Ice Formation: Ice crystals damage microbial cells by disrupting structures. Some
microorganisms can prevent intracellular ice formation, but ice can still form externally
or within cells, causing harm or death.