ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my immense gratitude to my Chemistry

teacher Mr. Piyush Pandey for the help and guidance he/she
provided for completing this project.

I also thank my parents who gave their ideas and inputs in making
this project. Most of all I thank our school management, for
providing us the facilities and opportunity to do this project.

Lastly, I would like to thank my classmates who have done this

project along with me. Their support made this project fruitful.

—ROHAN RAJ
 INDEX

TOPICS PAGE NO.

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL EVOLUTION 1

3
PREBIOTIC EARTH

6
THEORIES OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

9
FORMATION OF SIMPLE ORGANIC MOLECULES

11
Polymerization and Formation of Complex Molecules

13
Protocells and First Life Forms

15
From Chemical Evolution to Biological Evolution

17
Modern Research and Evidence Supporting Chemical
Evolution

19
Conclusion

20
Bibliography / References
 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL
EVOLUTION

What is chemical evolution ?

Chemical evolution is the gradual formation of complex
organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds
through chemical reactions that occurred in the early
conditions of the Earth or elsewhere in the universe.

Why is it important ?
Chemical evolution is important because it offers a
scientific explanation for the origin of life from non-living
matter. It shows how simple inorganic molecules
gradually formed complex organic compounds like
amino acids and nucleotides, which eventually led to the
first living cells. This concept bridges the gap between
chemistry and biology, supporting studies in evolutionary
biology and astrobiology. It not only helps scientists
understand how life began on Earth but also guides the
search for life on other planets, making it a key idea in
understanding our place in the universe.
Its connection with origin of life
Chemical evolution is directly connected to the origin of
life, as it describes the process by which simple,
non-living chemical compounds gradually formed more
complex organic molecules necessary for life, such as
amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These
molecules eventually organized into self-replicating
systems and cell-like structures, leading to the first
primitive living organisms. Without chemical evolution,
life as we know it could not have emerged from the early
Earth’s environment, making it the essential first step in
the natural development of life.
 PREBIOTIC EARTH
Early Earth conditions (hot, volcanic, no oxygen)
The early Earth, around 4.5 billion years ago, had very
harsh and extreme conditions. It was extremely hot due
to frequent volcanic eruptions, intense lightning, and
constant bombardment by meteorites. The atmosphere
was very different from today — it lacked oxygen and
was instead made up of gases like methane (CH₄),
ammonia (NH₃), water vapor (H₂O), hydrogen (H₂), and
carbon dioxide (CO₂). These conditions created a
reducing atmosphere, which was ideal for chemical
reactions to take place, leading to the formation of
simple organic molecules. These molecules laid the
foundation for the chemical evolution that eventually
gave rise to life.
Presence of water, gases like methane, ammonia,
hydrogen
In the early Earth environment, water played a crucial
role in supporting chemical evolution. Large oceans
formed as the planet cooled, providing a medium where
chemical reactions could occur. The atmosphere at that
time contained gases such as methane (CH₄), ammonia
(NH₃), hydrogen (H₂), and water vapor (H₂O). These
gases, combined with energy sources like lightning and
UV radiation, helped form simple organic compounds in
the oceans. These compounds eventually led to the
creation of more complex molecules essential for life,
making the presence of water and these gases a key
factor in the origin of life on Earth.
Energy sources: lightning, UV rays, volcanoes
In the early Earth, several natural energy sources played
a vital role in driving the chemical reactions needed for
the formation of life. Lightning provided powerful
electrical energy that helped break chemical bonds and
form new compounds. Ultraviolet (UV) rays from the
Sun, due to the absence of an ozone layer, reached the
Earth’s surface and provided high-energy radiation to
fuel reactions among atmospheric gases. Volcanic
eruptions released heat and various gases, contributing
both energy and raw materials for chemical evolution.
These energy sources enabled simple molecules like
methane, ammonia, and water vapor to react and form
complex organic compounds, which were essential for
the origin of life.
THEORIES OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

1. Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis
Proposed independently by Alexander Oparin (Russia)
and J.B.S. Haldane (UK) in the 1920s, this hypothesis
suggests that life began in the primitive oceans of early
Earth, which were rich in organic compounds. According
to them, the early atmosphere was reducing (lacking
oxygen) and contained gases like methane, ammonia,
hydrogen, and water vapor. Under the influence of
energy sources like lightning and UV radiation, these
gases reacted to form simple organic molecules, which
gradually evolved into more complex compounds and
eventually into living organisms. They described the
early oceans as a “primordial soup” where life could
have originated.
2. Miller-Urey Experiment (1953)
To test the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis, scientists
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted a famous
experiment in 1953. They created a closed system that
mimicked the conditions of early Earth: a mixture of
methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor, and
they passed electric sparks through it to simulate
lightning. After a few days, they discovered the
formation of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.
This experiment was the first experimental evidence that
organic compounds essential for life could form under
prebiotic conditions.
3. Importance
These theories and experiments are crucial because
they:
•​ Provide a scientific explanation for how life might
have originated naturally from non-living matter.
•​ Show that complex organic molecules can form
under the conditions thought to exist on early Earth.
•​ Laid the foundation for modern research in the
fields of origin of life, astrobiology, and chemical
evolution.
Together, the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis and the
Miller-Urey experiment strongly support the idea that life
began through a gradual chemical process driven by
Earth’s early environmental conditions.
 FORMATION OF SIMPLE ORGANIC
MOLECULES

In the early Earth’s environment, simple organic

molecules such as amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and
nitrogen bases were formed through chemical reactions
between inorganic gases like methane (CH₄), ammonia
(NH₃), hydrogen (H₂), water vapor (H₂O), and carbon
dioxide (CO₂). These gases were abundant in the
reducing atmosphere of early Earth.
🧪 How These Molecules Formed:
•​ Amino acids were formed when gases like
methane, ammonia, and hydrogen reacted under energy
sources such as lightning or UV radiation, as shown in
the Miller-Urey experiment.
•​ Sugars were likely produced through formaldehyde
reactions, where small carbon-based molecules
combined in the presence of water.
•​ Fatty acids formed from the combination of long
hydrocarbon chains and carboxyl groups, helping in the
formation of cell membranes.
•​ Nitrogen bases (like adenine) could be synthesized
from simple molecules like hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and
ammonia, which reacted under heat or UV light.
🌍 Role of Inorganic Gases and Environmental
Factors:
•​ Inorganic gases provided the essential chemical
elements — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen —
needed to build organic molecules.
•​ Environmental factors like high temperature,
lightning, UV radiation, and volcanic activity provided the
energy to drive chemical reactions.
•​ Water bodies, such as oceans and lakes, acted as
a medium where molecules could accumulate and
interact over time.
These processes led to the formation of the first building
blocks of life, making the formation of simple organic
molecules a crucial step in chemical evolution and the
origin of life on Earth.
Polymerization and Formation of
Complex Molecules
After simple organic molecules like amino acids, sugars,
and nucleotides were formed on early Earth, the next
step in chemical evolution was polymerization—the
process by which these small molecules joined together
to form larger, more complex macromolecules such as
proteins, nucleic acids (RNA/DNA), and lipids.
🧬 Formation of Complex Molecules:
•​ Proteins were formed when amino acids linked
together through peptide bonds. These chains of amino
acids could fold into specific shapes and perform
catalytic functions, acting like primitive enzymes.
•​ Nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) formed when
nucleotides joined via phosphodiester bonds. RNA is
believed to have appeared before DNA due to its
simpler structure and ability to store information and
catalyze reactions (as in the RNA world hypothesis).
•​ Lipids, made from fatty acids and glycerol,
spontaneously formed membrane-like structures in
water, such as micelles or vesicles, which could have
led to the first primitive cell membranes.
🧠 Spontaneous Formation Theories:
•​ Clay surface theory suggests that mineral surfaces,
especially clay, may have acted as catalysts for
polymerization by helping molecules align and react.
•​ Hydrothermal vent theory proposes that deep-sea
vents provided the right conditions—heat, pressure, and
mineral-rich fluids—for polymerization and the formation
of complex molecules.
•​ Tidal pool theory suggests that repeated cycles of
wetting and drying in shallow pools helped concentrate
molecules and drive polymerization.
These processes helped create the essential
components of life from non-living matter, making
polymerization a key step in the transition from chemical
evolution to biological evolution.
 Protocells and First Life Forms
After the formation of complex organic molecules, the
next major step in chemical evolution was the
development of protocells—simple, cell-like structures
that marked the transition from non-living to living
matter.
🧪 Concept of Coacervates and Micelles:
•​ Coacervates are tiny droplets formed when organic
molecules like proteins and sugars spontaneously clump
together in water. They can absorb substances from
their surroundings and maintain an internal
environment—features similar to living cells.
•​ Micelles are spherical structures formed by lipids
(fat-like molecules) in water. They can self-assemble
due to the natural arrangement of hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails, forming membrane-like boundaries.
These structures demonstrated how cell-like
compartments could form spontaneously, providing a
basic organizational structure crucial for life.
🧫 Formation of the First Cell-Like Structures:
•​ When complex molecules like RNA, proteins, and
lipids gathered inside coacervates or micelles, they
formed protocells.
•​ These protocells had semi-permeable boundaries,
could grow, divide, and even carry out simple chemical
reactions.
•​ Although not truly alive, they represented a key
intermediate step between chemistry and biology.
🌱 Evolution of the First Living Cells (Prokaryotes):
•​ Eventually, some protocells developed the ability to
self-replicate, especially those containing RNA with
catalytic properties (ribozymes).
•​ These evolved into the first prokaryotic
cells—simple, single-celled organisms without a
nucleus.
•​ The first prokaryotes were likely anaerobic (did not
need oxygen), lived in water, and got energy through
chemical reactions like fermentation.
These early life forms marked the beginning of biological
evolution, setting the stage for the diversity of life we see
today. The study of protocells helps scientists
understand how life could have emerged naturally from
non-living matter.
From Chemical Evolution to Biological
Evolution
The transition from chemical evolution to biological
evolution marks one of the most significant milestones in
the history of life. It represents the shift from non-living
chemical systems to self-sustaining, living organisms
capable of reproduction and evolution.
🔄 Transition from Non-Living to Living:
Through chemical evolution, simple inorganic molecules
gradually formed complex organic compounds like
amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids. These molecules
assembled into polymers and later into
protocells—structures that resembled primitive cells.
Once these protocells developed the ability to store
genetic information (like RNA) and self-replicate, they
crossed the boundary from non-living to living. This
marked the origin of the first true living cells, likely
simple prokaryotes.
🧬 How Chemical Evolution Paved the Way for
Darwinian Evolution:
Chemical evolution created the first systems that could
mutate, replicate, and pass on genetic information,
leading to variation. With replication and variation in
place, natural selection could begin to act. This allowed
the Darwinian process of evolution—survival of the
fittest—to take over. Over time, these simple life forms
evolved into more complex organisms, driven by
biological evolution.
Thus, chemical evolution provided the raw materials and
basic mechanisms necessary for life to begin, while
biological (Darwinian) evolution took over to shape the
diversity and complexity of life we see today.
 Modern Research and Evidence
Supporting Chemical Evolution
Modern science continues to uncover evidence
supporting the theory of chemical evolution and the
natural origin of life. Research in various fields—from
space science to geology—has provided strong support
for the idea that life could have formed from non-living
matter under early Earth or even extraterrestrial
conditions.
☄️ Meteorite Studies (e.g., Murchison Meteorite):
The Murchison meteorite, which fell in Australia in 1969,
contained over 80 different amino acids, some of which
are not found on Earth. It also had nucleobases and
simple sugars. These findings suggest that organic
molecules necessary for life could have come from
space, supporting the idea that the building blocks of life
are widespread in the universe.
🌊 Deep Sea Vents and Hydrothermal Theories:
Scientists have discovered that hydrothermal vents on
the ocean floor release hot, mineral-rich water, creating
ideal conditions for the formation of complex organic
molecules. These environments are rich in energy and
chemical gradients, which could have powered the
polymerization of molecules and the formation of
protocells. Many researchers believe life may have
originated in such deep-sea environments, protected
from harsh surface conditions.
🚀 Ongoing Experiments and Space Missions:
•​ Laboratory experiments continue to simulate early
Earth conditions, testing how complex molecules could
have formed and assembled.
•​ NASA and ESA missions, such as Perseverance
(Mars rover) and Europa Clipper, are exploring other
planets and moons for signs of past or present life.
•​ Missions like OSIRIS-REx (asteroid sample return)
aim to analyze space rocks for organic compounds.
These modern discoveries and experiments strongly
support the theory of chemical evolution, showing that
the building blocks of life can form naturally in a wide
range of environments, both on Earth and beyond.
 Conclusion
Chemical evolution explains how life on Earth may have
originated naturally from simple inorganic molecules
through a gradual process of increasing complexity. It
began with the formation of basic organic compounds
like amino acids and nucleotides under early Earth
conditions, followed by their polymerization into proteins,
nucleic acids, and lipids. These eventually formed
protocells—primitive, cell-like structures capable of basic
life functions. This paved the way for biological evolution
and the emergence of the first living organisms.
Studying chemical evolution is important today because
it helps us understand the origin of life, supports the
search for life beyond Earth, and connects chemistry,
biology, and astronomy in a meaningful way. It
encourages scientific curiosity and provides valuable
insight into our place in the universe, showing that life
may be a natural outcome of the laws of chemistry and
physics.
 Bibliography / References
📚 Books:
1.Biology – Campbell & Reece, Pearson Education.
2.Life: The Science of Biology – Purves, Sadava, Orians
& Heller.
3.Principles of Biochemistry – Lehninger, Nelson & Cox.
🌐 Websites:
1.https://www.khanacademy.org
2.https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-evolution
3.https://www.nasa.gov/
4.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
5.https://byjus.com/biology/chemical-evolution/
🎥 Videos / Documentaries:
1.How Did Life Begin? – CrashCourse Biology
(YouTube)
2.Origin of Life on Earth – Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell
(YouTube)
3.The Miller-Urey Experiment Explained – Stated Clearly
(YouTube)