ECE 444 ANTENNA ENGINEERING

Pre-requisites

i. Electromagnetic fields - ECE 242

ii. Electromagnetic waves - ECE 341

iii. Transmission lines - ECE 342

Course content

Antenna Fundamentals and Vector Potentials

Isotropic Radiation, Power density and Intensity, Gain, Directive gain, Directivity,
Effective area, Reciprocity theorem, Antenna efficiency, Radiation resistance, Terminal
impedance, Beam width and Bandwidth. Retarded vector potentials, Radiation from a
small current element, Power radiated by a small current element and its radiation by
a small current element and its radiation resistance, Half wave dipole and Monopoles,
Radiation field of current distribution of center fed Dipole.

Antenna Arrays

Various forms of antenna arrays – Broadside, End fire, Collinear, Parasitic arrays,
Array of two point sources, Pattern Multiplication, Array of “N” sources – analysis of End
fire and Broadside case, phased arrays, Tapering of arrays, Binomial arrays.

Special Purpose Arrays

Traveling wave, Loop, Dipole and Folded dipole antennas, Babinet’s principle, Slot
radiators, Horn antenna, Reflector antenna, Yagi-Uda antenna, Wideband antenna
– Frequency Independent Log periodic antenna, Helical and Micro strip antenna.
Application of all types of antennas.

Antenna Measurements

Impedance, Gain, Radiation pattern, Beam width, Radiation resistance, Antenna

efficiency, Directivity and Polarization Measurements. Vertical incidence measurement
of the ionosphere, Relation between oblique and vertical incidence transmission.

Reference texts

1. ANTENNA THEORY- ANALYSIS AND DESIGN, Constantine Balanis, 3rd edition

2. ANTENNAS AND RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, Robert E. Colin.

3. ANTENNA THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, Hubregt Viser

4. Other supplementary texts, including internet sources

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 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
There are two broad categories of communication systems: those that utilize transmission
lines in an interconnected network and those that rely on electromagnetic radiation with
an antenna at both the transmitting and receiving locations.

An antenna (or aerial) is a device (usually made from a good conducting material) for
radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves. An antenna converts electrical currents into
electromagnetic waves (transmitting antenna) and vice versa (receiving antenna).

Fig. 1.1 shows a transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of an antenna system in the

transmission mode.

Figure 1.1: Transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of antenna in transmitting mode.

The source is represented by an ideal generator of voltage Vg and internal resistance

Zg , the transmission line is represented by a line with characteristic impedance Zc and the
antenna is represented by a load ZA connected to the transmission line.

ZA = (RL + Rr ) + jXA . The load resistance RL is used to represent the conduction

and dielectric losses associated with the antenna while the radiation resistance Rr is used
to represent the radiation by the antenna. The reactance XA is used to represent the
imaginary part of the impedance associated with radiation by the antenna. Maximum
power is delivered to the antenna under conjugate matching.

In addition to receiving or transmitting energy, an antenna in an advanced wireless

system is usually required to optimize or accentuate the radiation energy in some directions
and suppress it in others. Thus the antenna must also serve as a directional device.

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ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

1.1 Types of antennas

1.1.1 Wire antennas

These are made from wires, and may take various shapes such as straight wire (dipole,
monopole), loops, helix etc. Loop antennas may take the form of a circle, rectangle, square,
ellipse or any other configuration. The circular loop is the most common because of its
simplicity in construction.

Dipole antennas are used for radio broadcasting systems at VHF frequencies and below,
while loop antennas are used in direction finding systems among others.

Figure 1.2: Wire antennas: dipole, monopole, loop and helix antenna.

1.1.2 Aperture antennas

An aperture antenna consists of an ‘opening’ in a metallic surrounding. The fields across

the aperture, radiate into free space.

Aperture-type antennas are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft applications, because
they can be very conveniently flush-mounted on the skin of the aircraft or spacecraft. In
addition, they can be covered with a dielectric material to protect them from hazardous
conditions of the environment.

Aperture antennas are used in the GHz range of frequencies.

Figure 1.3: Aperture antennas: (a) pyramidal horn (b) rectangular waveguide.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

1.1.3 Microstrip antennas

Microstrip antennas consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate. These may

take different configurations. However, the rectangular and circular patches are the
most popular because of ease of analysis, fabrication and their attractive radiation
characteristics. Microstrip antennas are low profile, comformable to planar and non planar
surface, simple and inexpensive to fabricate using PCB technology. In addition, they are
mechanically robust and very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern
and impedance.

Figure 1.4: (a) Rectangular and (b) circular microstrip patch antennas.

1.1.4 Array antennas

Many applications require radiation characteristics that may not be achievable by a single
element. Similar or different types of radiating elements may be combined to form an
array. The arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation from the elements
adds up to give a radiation maximum in a particular direction and minimum in others as
desired.

Often, similar elements are positioned at regular intervals on a line (linear array
antenna) or in a plane (planar array antenna). By forming an array, a radiation beam may
be created having a small beamwidth. By electronically controlling the phase differences
between the elements, we may electronically direct the beam in different directions without
physically rotating the antenna.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 1.5: Typical array antennas.

1.1.5 Reflector antennas

Sophisticated forms of antennas such as the parabolic reflector are used to communicate
over great distances.

1.1.6 Lens antennas

Lenses are primarily used to collimate incident divergent energy to prevent it from
spreading in undesired directions. By properly shaping the geometrical configuration
and choosing the appropriate material of the lenses, they can transform various forms
of divergent energy into plane waves. They can be used in most of the same applications
as are the parabolic reflectors, especially at higher frequencies.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 1.6: Typical reflector antennas.

Figure 1.7: Typical Lens antennas.

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

1.2 Radiation mechanism

A stationary electric charge does not radiate, and neither does an electric charge moving
at uniform velocity along a straight wire.

To create radiation, there must be a time-varying current or an acceleration (or

deceleration) of charge. To create charge acceleration (or deceleration) the wire must
either be:

i Curved

ii Bent

iii Discontinuous or

iv Terminated

Periodic charge acceleration (or deceleration) or time-varying current is also created

when charge is oscillating in a time-harmonic motion.

Let us now consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line

which is connected to an antenna as shown in Fig. 1.8

The application of a voltage across the two-conductor transmission line creates an

electric field between the conductors. This field is illustrated using the electric lines of
force which may take any of the following configuration:

ˆ start on positive charges and end on negative charges

ˆ start on a positive charge and end at infinity

ˆ start at infinity and end on a negative charge or

ˆ form closed loops neither starting or ending on any charge

The electric lines of force act on free electrons on the conductors, whose movement
constitutes a current that in-turn creates a magnetic field intensity.

The creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields between the conductors forms
electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission line. These waves travel into the
antenna and finally are radiated as free-space waves. When the electromagnetic waves are
within the transmission line and antenna, their existence is associated with the presence
of the charges inside the conductors. However, when the waves are radiated, they form
closed loops and there are no charges to sustain their existence.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 1.8: Source, transmission line, antenna, and detachment of electric field lines.
 Chapter 2

RADIATION INTEGRALS AND

THE HERTZIAN DIPOLE
In this section, we shall determine the electric and magnetic fields of an infinitesmal
antenna referred to as the Hertzian dipole.

Some review sections are included to “bring you up to speed” in the grasping of concepts
to be introduced. It is expected that you recall these from your electromagnetic fields and
waves courses.

2.1 Review of Maxwells equations for static fields

Differential form of Maxwells’ equations

∇ · D = ρv Gauss’ law (2.1)

∇×E=0 Faradays’ law (2.2)
∇×H=J Amperes’ law (2.3)
∇·B=0 Non-existence of magnetic charges (2.4)
∇·J=0 Continuity equation (2.5)

The general electromagnetic problem is to determine the E and H fields from the
sources by the charge density ρv and the current density J. If the arbitrary charge and
current distributions in space are known, we can apply Coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart’s
law to determine the fields.

In some cases, the resulting integrals are difficult to solve. It is convenient to define
some intermediate functions known as potential functions. This would lead to a two-step
process in determining the electric and magnetic fields.

2.1.1 Electric scalar potential, Φ

For point charges Q or volume charge density ρv , the electric potential is defined as:
ZZZ
Q ρv
Φ= = dv (2.6)
4πε0 R v 4πε0 R

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ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

The electric field is determined from

E = −∇Φ (2.7)

If we replace equation 2.7 into equation 2.1, we get

ρv
∇2 Φ = − (2.8)
ε0

Equation 2.8 is referred to Poissons’ equation, whose solution is given by equation 2.6.

2.1.2 Magnetic vector potential, A

From Maxwells’ equation 2.4, ∇ · B = 0 implies that there exists a vector A such that:

B=∇×A (2.9)

(This is as a result of the null identity ∇ · (∇ × F) = 0)

The magnetic vector potential is defined by:

I ZZZ
µ0 I0 dl µ0 J
A= = dv (2.10)
4πR v 4πR

This is the solution to the Poissons equation

∇2 A = −µ0 J (2.11)

2.2 Review of Maxwells equations for time varying fields

∇ · D = ρv (2.12)
∂B
∇×E=− (2.13)
∂t
∂D
∇×H=J+ (2.14)
∂t
∇·B=0 (2.15)
∂ρv
∇·J=− (2.16)
∂t

Often, we assume time-harmonic fields with ejωt dependence. Therefore,

∂
= jω
∂t

Throughout the text we shall use the two notations interchangably.

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

We shall review some concepts, which are useful in the determination of the radiation
fields. These are:

(i) Complete description of a vector field using Helmholtz theorem

(ii) Coulombs and Lorentz gauge

(iii) Vector and scalar wave equations for time varying fields

(iv) Retarded potentials

2.2.1 Complete definition of the electric field E

Helmholtz theorem states that a vector field is completely determined when both the
lamellar (divergence) and solenoidal (curl) parts are specified. Recall from vector theory,
for a vector field F:

If ∇ · F = 0, the field is said to be solenoidal, while if ∇ × F = 0, the field is said to

be irrotational.

If we apply the null vector identity ∇ × (∇f ) = 0 (curl-grad-f) on equation (2.7)

E = −∇Φ

∇ × E = −∇ × (∇Φ) = 0 (2.17)

This is inconsistent with Maxwells equation for time varing fields given by equation (2.13)

∂B
∇×E=−
∂t

We invork Helmholtz theorem and use equations (2.9) and (2.13) as follows:
 
∂B ∂ (∇ × A) ∂A
∇×E+ =∇×E+ =∇× E+ =0 (2.18)
∂t ∂t ∂t

∂A
E+ = E + jωA = −∇Φ (2.19)
∂t

The electric field E is completely described in terms of scalar potential, Φ and vector
potential A as:

E = −∇Φ − jωA (2.20)

2.2.2 Coulomb and Lorentz gauges

We shall state the Coulombs Lorentz gauge (also referred to as condition). We shall
apply these conditions in the immediate section. These conditions gives the relationship
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

between the scalar potential Φ and the vector potential A as a consequence of conservation
of charges.

∇·A=0 Coulombs gauge (2.21)

∂Φ
∇ · A = −µε Lorentz gauge (2.22)
∂t

2.2.3 Wave equations for potential functions for time varying fields

Apply equation 2.20 into the Gauss law given in equation 2.12,

∇ · D = ∇ · εE = ρv (2.23)

ρv
∇ · E = ∇ · (−∇Φ − jωA) = −∇2 Φ − jω∇ · A = (2.24)
ε

Applying Coulombs gauge on equation 2.24 leads to ∇2 Φ = −ρv /ε, which is equation
(2.8). Applying Lorentz condition on equation 2.24 leads to:

ρv
∇2 Φ + jω (−jωµεΦ) = ∇2 Φ + ω 2 µεΦ = −
ε

ρv
∇2 Φ + k 2 Φ = − (2.25)
ε
√
k = ω µε is referred to as the wave number.

By inspection, we can correctly predict that the wave equation for the magnetic
potential A can be expressed as:

∇2 A + k 2 A = −µJ (2.26)

This is obtained by applying equation (2.20) on the Maxwells’ equation in equation

(2.14)

∂D 1 ∂D
∇×H=J+ , H = (∇ × A)and, = jωεE
∂t µ ∂t

1
(∇ × ∇ × A) = J + jωεE ⇐⇒ ∇ × ∇ × A = µJ + jωµεE (2.27)
µ

From matrix algebra, ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A

∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µJ + jωµεE (2.28)

Replacing E with equation (2.20)

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µJ + jωµε (−∇Φ − jωA)

(2.29)
∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µJ − ∇ (jωµεΦ) + k 2 A

on rearranging, and applying the Lorentz condition ∇ · A = −jωµεΦ, equation (2.29)

reduces to equation (2.26)

The continuity equation relates the charge to the current density. Therefore, it is not
necessary to solve for the electric potential Φ. We can apply the Lorentz condition to
equation (2.20) to find the electric field E in terms of the magnetic vector A alone.

∇ (∇ · A)
∇Φ = − (2.30)
jωµε

∇ (∇ · A)
E = −∇Φ − jωA = − jωA (2.31)
jωµε

2.2.4 Retarded potentials

In section 2.1, we noted that the solution of the Poissons equations (2.8) and (2.11) for
static fields are the potentials Φ and A defined by equations (2.6) and (2.10). The solutions
for the wave equations for potential functions given in equations (2.25) and (2.26) can be
expressed as:
e−jkR
ZZZ
1
Φ(x, y, z) = ρv (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) dv (2.32)
4πε v R
e−jkR
ZZZ
µ
A(x, y, z) = J(x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) dv (2.33)
4π v R

The sources are located at (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) while (x, y, z) is the observation point at which we
wish to determine the potentials and R is the distance between the source and observation
point.

The solutions in (2.32) and (2.33) takes into account the finite velocity of propagation
of the E and H waves. The time taken by a wave of speed c to travel a distance R between
the source and the observation point is R/c.

If we write the source point as r′ (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) and the field observation point as r(x, y, z)
and R = r − r′ . We may rewite equation 2.32 as:

e−jkR
ZZZ
µ
A(r) = J(r′ ) dv
4π v R

If we write the equation in time domain by re-introducing e−jωt and noting that k =
ω/c

e−jω(t−R/c)
ZZZ
µ
A(r, t) = J(r′ ) dv
4π v R
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

R
The term ejω(t− c ) shows that at any point distance R away from the source, the effects
caused by changes in the source are not felt until a time interval R/c has lapsed (finite
propagation time). This means that the potentials are related to the source distributions
that took place at an earlier time, that is, they are retarded potentials.

We may re-write t′ = t − R/c such that

J(r′ , t′ )
ZZZ
µ
A(r, t) = dv
4π v R

This may also be written as: (In some text books)

ZZZ
µ [J]
A= dv (2.34)
4π v R

ZZZ
1 [ρv ]
Φ= dv (2.35)
4πε v R

Where [∗] indicates that every t appearing in the expression has been replaced with a
retarded time t′ .

2.3 The magnetic potential, A

The knowledge of the magnetic vector potential A, together with equation (2.30) is
sufficient to determine the radiation fields. In this section, we derive the solution of
the vector wave equation given in equation (2.26).

∇2 A + k 2 A = −µJ

The vector wave equation may be decomposed into the rectangular components in the
x̂, ŷ and ẑ directions
∇2 A = ∇2 Ax x̂ + ∇2 Ay ŷ + ∇2 Az ẑ (2.36)

Whereby
A = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ (2.37)

J = Jx x̂ + Jy ŷ + Jz ẑ (2.38)

These results in three identical equations. Assuming that the current is only in one
direction (say z-direction), the wave equation in (2.26) simplifies to:

∇2 Az + k 2 Az = −µJz (2.39)

We first find the solution of a point source. The general solution is then obtained as
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

sum of the weighted point source responses. At all points except at the origin (where the
point source is located):
∇ 2 Az + k 2 Az = 0 (2.40)

Since the limit of the source is a point, Az is not a function of directions (θ and ϕ)
in spherical coordinate system and Az varies only as Az (r) (spherical symmetry). The
Laplacian operation in equation (2.40) may be re-written in spherical coordinates while
dropping the derivatives with respect to θ and ϕ as:
 
2 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Az
∇ Az + k Az = 2 r + k 2 Az = 0 (2.41)
r ∂r ∂r

If we make the substitution Az = ψ/r, equation (2.41) reduces to:

d2 ψ
+ k2 ψ = 0 (2.42)
dr2

which has the solutions ψ=C1 e−jkr , C2 e+jkr . Therefore, the homogeneous equation
(2.40) has the solution:
C1 −jkr
Az1 = e
r (2.43)
C2 +jkr
Az2 = e
r

We shall only be interested in the outward propagating spherical wave Az1 .

If the source was located at an arbitrary point from the origin (see figure 2.1), then we
would compute the distance between the source point and the observation point, R and

C1 −jkR
Az = Az1 = e
R

The constant of proportion can be determined by integrating equation (2.26) over a

small volume of radius r. If we consider the source to be a collection of point sources
weighted by distribution Jz , the response Az is the sum of point source responses given
by:
e−jkR
ZZZ
µ
Az = Jz dv (2.44)
4π v R

We recognize that equation (2.44) is the retarded potential for z− directed current
density. Similar solutions would be obtained for x− and y− directed current densities.
The total solution is obtained by superposition of the x, y and z components given by
equation (2.33).

e−jkR
ZZZ
µ
A= J dv
4π v R

Note:
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 2.1: Coordinate system for computing radiation fields (a) source at origin (b) source
at an arbitrary location

1. If the source is given in terms of linear current density K, A/m, the integral equation
(2.33) becomes a surface integral.

e−jkR
ZZ
µ
A= K ds
4π s R

2. If the source is given in terms of electric current I, A/m, the integral equation (2.33)
becomes a line integral.

e−jkR
Z
µ
A= I dl
4π c R

2.4 Solution of Maxwells’ equations for radiation problems

The antenna problem consists of solving for the E and H fields that are created by the
current distribution J. The summary of the steps are as follows:

(i) Determine the electric current distribution

(ii) Solve for A using ∇2 A + k 2 A = −µJ. Depending on the problem, an appropriate

coordinate system is selected
1
(iii) Determine H using H = µ (∇ × A)

(iv) Determine E from

∇ (∇ · A)
E = −jωA +
jωµε
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

2.5 The Hertzian dipole

The Hertzian dipole is a short current filament. Consider an infinitesimal dipole of length
δl located at the origin of the coordinate system carrying a constant linear current I0 .
The dipole is placed symmetrically, and oriented along the z- direction. Determine the
radiated E and H fields.

Solution.

Figure 2.2: Infinitesmal dipole and the associated field components

The vector potential has only the z component. For a thin wire of cross section area
dS, Jz = I/dS and dv = dSdl. I = I0 âz and dl = dz. We use the expression:

e−jkr µ e−jkr
Z Z
µ µI0 δl −jkr
A= I dl = I0 dzâz = âz e
4π c r 4π r c 4πr

Because of the spherical symmetry, it is convenient to use spherical coordinates. To

convert the unit vectors from rectangular to spherical, we use the following relationships
    
Ar sin θ cos ϕ sin θ sin ϕ cos θ
Ax
 Aθ  = cos θ cos ϕ cos θ sin ϕ − sin θ Ay 
    

Aϕ − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 Az

since Ax = Ay = 0, Ar = Az cos θ, Aθ = −Az sin θ and Aϕ = 0

µI0 δl −jkr µI0 δl −jkr

A(r, θ, ϕ) = âr e cos θ − âθ e sin θ
4πr 4πr
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Next, we determine H using

1
H= (∇ × A)
µ

In spherical coordinates, the curl of a vector A is defined as following.

 
âr râθ r sin θâϕ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×A=

 ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
r2 sin θ

Ar rAθ r sin θAϕ

Only the Hϕ component exists, which may be simplified as:

 
1 ∂ ∂Ar
Hϕ = (rAθ ) −
µr ∂r ∂θ

Hr = 0
Hθ = 0 (2.45)
 
kI0 δl sin θ 1 −jkr
Hϕ = j 1+ e âϕ
4πr jkr

∇(∇·A) 1
E may be obtained from equation E = −jωA + jωµε or E = jωε (∇ × H) to obtain

E = Er âr + Eθ âθ

 
I0 δl cos θ 1
Er = η0 1+ e−jkr âr
2πr2 jkr
 
kI0 δl sin θ 1 1 (2.46)
Eθ = jη0 1+ + e−jkr âθ
4πr jkr (jkr)2
Eϕ = 0

p
η0 = µ0 /ε0 is the intrinsic impedance of free space.

2.5.1 Field regions and the radiated fields

The radiation fields E and H have components that vary as r−n .

(i) The terms that vary as 1/r3 constitute the reactive near field zone

(ii) The terms that vary as 1/r2 constitute the radiating near field zone.

(iii) The terms that vary as 1/r constitute the far field or radiation zone.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 2.3: Field regions of an antenna

[Link] Reactive near field region

This is the region immediately surrounding the antenna. In this region, energy is stored
in the field and returned back to the antenna. The outer boundary of this region may
p
be approximated to be a distance r = 0.62 D3 /λ from the antenna surface. λ is the
wavelength and D is the largest dimension of the antenna.

[Link] Radiating near field (Fresnel) region

This region is characterized by the fact that radiation fields dominate over reactive
fields. However, the angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the
antenna. Depending on the antenna dimensions, this region may not exist. It is usually
p
approximated to be within 0.62 D3 /λ ≤ r ≤ 2D2 /λ

[Link] Far-field (Fraunhofer) region

In this region, the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the distance
from the antenna. It is taken to be the region r > D2 /λ. In this region, E and H are
perpendicular to the observation direction, r and to each other. Note that these region
boundaries are not uniquely/precisely defined.

In the far-field, kr >> 1 and the terms tha vary as 1/r dominates. We neglect the
fields that vary as 1/r2 and 1/r3 and equations (2.45) and (2.46) reduces to:

kI0 δl sin θ −jkr

Hϕ = j e âϕ (2.47)
4πr
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

kI0 δl sin θ −jkr

Eθ = jη0 e âθ (2.48)
4πr

The far field radiation consists of transverse components which satisfies the relationship
E = η0 H, or more precisely, E = −η0 âr × H.
 Chapter 3

FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS
OF ANTENNAS
In this section, we describe some parameters of antennas used for performance character-
ization. These include the antenna radiation pattern, radiation power density, radiation
intensity, directivity, gain,

3.1 Antenna radiation pattern

Antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is a mathematical function or graphical

representation of the far-field radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates.

Radiation properties may include power flux density, radiation intensity, field strength,
directivity, phase or polarization.

Generally, the electric and magnetic fields are functions of the spatial coordinates in
space, such that: E = E(r, θ, ϕ) and H = H(r, θ, ϕ).

A trace of the received electric (or magnetic) field at constant radius is referred to as
amplitude field pattern, while the spatial variation of the power density along a constant
radius is referred to as amplitude power pattern.

Often, the radiation patterns are normalized with respect to the maximum amplitude.
In addition, it is usually plotted on a logarithmic (dB) scale, either as polar or rectangular
radiation plots.

3.1.1 Three dimensional radiation pattern

The radiated fields of an Hertzian dipole are given by equations (2.47) and (2.48). The
normalized electric field pattern can be writted as:

Eθ (θ, ϕ)
F (θ, ϕ) = = sin θ
Eθ (max)

If we evaluate the electric fields for all possible angular positions (θ, ϕ), the three
dimensional radiation pattern shown in Fig. results.

For the Hertzian dipole, it is observed that the radiation pattern is symmetrical around

21
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 3.1: 3-D radiation pattern for Hertzian dipole

the dipole axis, with no radiation along the dipole axis and maximum radiation in the
direction perpendicular to the dipole axis.

For more complicated antenna patterns such as that of a pyramidal horn antenna or
multi-element linear array antenna, there may be difficulties in the interpretation of the
antenna patterns. Instead, two-dimensional planar cuts of the three-dimensional radiation
patterns are used.

3.1.2 Planar-cuts

For a rotationally symmetric radiation pattern, the planar cuts taken at any azimuth angle
ϕ are identical. The two most important views are those of the principal E- and H-plane
patterns. The E-plane pattern view is the plane containing the electric field vector and the
direction of maximum radiation while the H-plane as “the plane containing the magnetic-
field vector and the direction of maximum radiation. Planar cuts for E-plane (ϕ = 0o )
and H-plane (θ = 90o ) are shown.

It is common practice to orient an antenna so that at least one of the principal plane
patterns coincides with one of the geometrical principal planes

Figure 3.2: E-plane and H-plane planar cuts of a Hertzian dipole

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

3.1.3 Radiation pattern lobes

Consider the radiation pattern of a 10-element linear antenna array shown. The various
parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes.

Figure 3.3: (a) Three-dimensional (polar), (b) two-dimensional (polar) and two-
dimensional (linear) radiation patterns of a 10-element linear antenna array

Radiation lobe - a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively

weak radiation intensity.

Major lobe (main beam) - the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum
radiation

Minor lobe - any other lobe except a major lobe. Minor lobes usually represent
radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized

Side lobe - any minor lobe that occupies the same hemisphere in the direction of the
main lobe

Back lobe - any minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in the direction opposite to
the main lobe.

Side lobe level (SLL) - ratio of the power density in the lobe in question to that of
the major lobe
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

3.1.4 Directional patterns

Isotropic patterns

An isotropic radiation is uniform radiation in all directions. An isotropic radiator is a

hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all directions. Isotropic radiators
do not exist in real life. However, they form the basis of comparing the performance of
the antennas.

Directional patterns

A directional antenna is one which has the property of radiating or receiving

electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than in others

Omnidirectional patterns

A special case of a directional pattern defined as one having a non-directional pattern

in a given plane and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane. With reference to
Figure 3.2, we observe that the Hertzian dipole is non-directional in the H-plane, while
directional in the E-plane

3.2 Radiation power density

The time average Poynting vector (average power density) is determined from:

1
Wav = (E × H∗ ) (W/m2 ) (3.1)
2

Therefore, the average power radiated by an antenna can be determined as:

ZZ
1
Prad = Re [E × H∗ ] · ds (W ) (3.2)
2 s

For an isotropic antenna, the Poynting vector is not a function of spherical coordinates
θ and ϕ.
ZZ Z 2π Z π
Prad = W0 · ds = [âr W0 (r)] · [âr r2 sin θ dθ dϕ] = 4πr2 W0 (3.3)
s 0 0

and W0 is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of radius r.

3.3 Radiation intensity

The radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as the power radiated from an
antenna per unit solid angle. It is expressed mathematically as:

U (θ, ϕ) = r2 Wav (W/unit solid angle) (3.4)

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

The total radiated power is related to the radiation intensity as:

ZZ Z 2π Z π
Prad = U (θ, ϕ) dΩ = U sin θ dθdϕ (W ) (3.5)
Ω 0 0

For an isotropic source, U is independent of the angles θ and ϕ. Therefore

ZZ ZZ
Prad = U0 dΩ = U0 dΩ = 4πU0 (3.6)
Ω Ω

Prad
U0 = (3.7)
4π

3.4 Directivity

To compare different antenna with each other, we need to have a reference antenna to
compare to. This reference is taken as the hypothetical isotropic radiator, which radiates
equally in all directions.

A directional antenna is one that has the property of radiating (or receiving
electromagnetic waves) more effectively in some particular directions than in others.

An omnidirectional pattern is a special case of a directional pattern. This is where

there is essentially non directional pattern in a given plane and a directional pattern in
any orthogonal plane.

Directivity D(θ, ϕ) is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
(θ, ϕ) from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions (isotropic
radiation).
U (θ, ϕ)
D(θ, ϕ) = (3.8)
U0

The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna
divided by 4π. That is:

Prad
U0 = This is similar to the radiation intensity for an isotropic radiator in equation (3.7).
4π

Directivity is usually defined in the direction of maximum radiation intensity.

Umax (θ, ϕ) 4πUmax (θ, ϕ)

Dmax (θ, ϕ) = D0 = = (3.9)
U0 Prad

Directivity has a dimensionless units.

The general expression for directivity can be stated as follows:

Let the radiation intensity of the antenna be expressed as U (θ, ϕ) = B0 F (θ, ϕ) where
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

B0 is a constant term.

Umax (θ, ϕ) = B0 F (θ, ϕ)|max = B0 Fmax (θ, ϕ) (3.10)

Total radiated power

ZZ Z 2π Z π
Prad = U (θ, ϕ) dΩ = B0 F (θ, ϕ) sin θdθdϕ (3.11)
Ω 0 0

Directivity
F (θ, ϕ)
D(θ, ϕ) = 4π R 2π R π (3.12)
0 0 F (θ, ϕ) sin θdθdϕ

Maximum directivity

F (θ, ϕ)|max
D0 = 4π R 2π R π (3.13)
0 0 F (θ, ϕ) sin θdθdϕ

In most cases, the directivity is expressed in decibels (dBs) instead of dimensionless

units as
D(dB) = 10log10 [D(dimensionless)]

3.5 Antenna gain

The gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as the ratio of the intensity, in a
given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted
by the antenna were radiated isotropically.

The gain function G(θ, ϕ) is defined in a similar way to the directivity, except that
Prad is replaced with the accepted (or input) power Pin .

radiation intensity U (θ, ϕ)

Gain = 4π = 4π (3.14)
total input (accepted) power Pin (lossless isotropic radiator)

In most cases, the power gain of an antenna is compared to than of a reference isotropic
antenna of equal input power. In addition, the direction is taken as that of maximum
radiation.

Gain is also expressed in decibels (dBs) instead of dimensionless units as

G(dB) = 10log10 [G(dimensionless)]

3.6 Antenna efficiency

An antenna may experience losses due to

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

ˆ reflections as a result of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna

ˆ I 2 R lossess (conduction and dielectric losses)

The overall (total) efficiency of an antenna relates the radiated power to the input
(accepted) power as:
Prad
η0 = (3.15)
Pin

η0 can be expressed as:

η0 = ηr ηc ηd (3.16)

ηr - is the reflection or mismatch efficiency = 1 − |Γ|2

ηc - is the conduction efficiency

ηd - is the dielectric efficiency

Γ = (Zin − Z0 )/(Zin + Z0 ) - is the voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals

of an antenna

ηc and ηd are determined experimentally and cannot be separated, and can thus be
written as ηcd

From equations (3.9) and (3.14), total efficiency may be expressed as

G
η0 = (3.17)
D

3.7 Beamwidth

The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two identical
points on opposite side of the pattern maximum.

Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) - In a plane containing the direction of the

maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity
is one-half value of the beam.

First null beamwidth (FNBW) - Refers to the angular separation between the first
nulls of the pattern.

The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important figure of merit and often is used as
a trade-off betweenit and the side lobe level; that is, as the beamwidth decreases, the side
lobe increases and vice versa.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

3.8 Beam efficiency

For an antenna with its major lobe directed along the z- axis, the beam efficiency (BE) of
defined by
power transmitted (received) within cone angle, θ1
BE = (3.18)
power transmitted (received) by the antenna

where θ1 is the half-angle of the cone within which the percentage of the total power
is to be found. This can be expressed mathematically as:
R 2π R θ1
U (θ, ϕ) sin θ dθdϕ
BE = R02π R0π (3.19)
0 0 U (θ, ϕ) sin θ dθdϕ

3.9 Antenna impedance bandwidth

The impedance of an antenna normally varies as a function of frequency. Therefore, the

matching (for maximum power transfer) also varies as a function of frequency. This means
that the antenna will operate efficiently within some restricted band of frequencies. The
width of this band is called bandwidth.

The centre frequency (resonance frequency) f0 usually represents the best impedance
matching. The upper and lower boundaries are determined from the reflection coefficients
levels. Typical reflection coefficient levels of -10dB |Γ|2 = 0.1 or -15dB |Γ|2 = 0.03 are
commonly employed to determine the reflection bandwidth.

For relatively small bandwidths, antennas, bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of

the centre frequency.
fu − fl
IBW = × 100% (3.20)
f0

where fl and fu are lower and upper cut-off frequencies respectively

For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the upper-
to-lower frequencies of acceptable operation. For example, a 10:1 bandwidth indicates that
the upper frequency is 10 times greater than the lower.

3.10 Polarization

Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the polarization of the

wave transmitted (radiated) by the antenna. At any fixed point of observation along
the direction of propagation, the instantaneous electric field describes some time variation
in both direction and magnitude. Polarization is thus defined in terms of curve traced by
the extremity (field tip or end point) of the electric field vector, and the sense in which it
is traced.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Polarization may be classified as linear, circular, or elliptical. For circular and

elliptical polarizations, the figure of the electric field is traced in a clockwise (CW) or
counterclockwise (CCW) sense. Clockwise rotation of the electric-field vector is also
designated as right-hand polarization and counterclockwise as left-hand polarization.

The electric field of a wave travelling in the +z direction may have both a x- component
and a y- component and can generally be written as

E = âx Ex + ây Ey (3.21)

Where:

Ex = Ex0 cos(ωt − kz)

Ey = Ey0 cos(ωt − kz + ϕ)

ϕ - is the phase angle by which Ey leads Ey

Ex0 - maximum magnitudes of the x component

Ey0 - maximum magnitudes of the y component

This can be written as

E = âx Ex0 cos(ωt − kz) + ây Ey0 cos(ωt − kz + ϕ) (3.22)

Note:

In phasor notation, cos θ = Re[ejθ ] and equation (3.22) can be written as

E = âx Ex0 ej(ωt−kz) + aˆy Ey0 ej(ωt−kz+ϕ)

Re[∗] refers to ”real part of” which may be dropped

Let us now examine the variation of the electric field vector at some fixed distance z.
For convenience, we choose z = 0.

E = âx Ex0 cos(ωt) + ây Ey0 cos(ωt + ϕ) (3.23)

3.10.1 Linear polarization

A time-harmonic wave is linearly polarized at a given point in space if the electric-field

(or magnetic-field) vector at that point is always oriented along the same straight line at
every instant of time.

If the E vector is fixed in one direction, say x- direction that is Eyo = 0;

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

E = âx Ex0 cos(ωt) = âx Ex (3.24)

The wave is said to be polarized in the x- direction.

Figure 3.4: Linearly polarized wave in the x-direction.

If the two components have a time-phase difference of 0 of an integral multiple of π,

that is ϕ = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, · · ·

E = âx Ex0 cos(ωt) ± ây Ey0 cos(ωt) (3.25)

The total field is a superposition of the x- polarized and y- polarized waves.

The total electric field is given by

Ey0
q
E= Ex0 2 + Ey0 2 ̸ ψ ψ = tan−1 (3.26)
Ex0

Figure 3.5: Linearly polarized wave in some arbitrary direction ψ-direction..

The wave is said to be polarized in the ψ direction.

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

3.10.2 Circular polarization

A time-harmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given point in space if the electric (or
magnetic) field vector at that point traces a circle as a function of time.

If Ex0 = Ey0 = E and ϕ = ±π/2 or ± 900 , then

E = âx E cos(ωt) ± ây E sin(ωt) (3.27)

We may recognize equation (3.27) as a parametric equation of a circle.

√
E= 2E ̸ ± ωt (3.28)

If we plot the locus of the electric field vector at different times, we observe that the
tip of the vector rotates in a circular manner with an angular frequency ω (clockwose or
√
counterclockwise) with a radius of 2E.

If the vector rotates CCW, it is referred to as left hand circular polarization (LHCP),
and if CW, it is referred to as right hand circular polarization (RHCP). The vector traces
a spiral in the z- direction.

This is true for all ϕ odd multiples of π/2

Figure 3.6: CCW circularly polarized wave.

3.10.3 Elliptical polarization

A time-harmonic wave is elliptically polarized if the tip of the field vector (electric or
magnetic) traces an elliptical locus in space.

For the general case where Ex0 ̸= Ey0 , or Ex0 = Ey0 but ϕ ̸= 0 or ± π/2 or its odd
multiples, the extremity of electric field traces out an ellipse.

The ratio of the major axis to that of the minor axis is referred to as axial ratio.
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 3.7: (a) Different wave polarization states (a) Elliptical polarization (b) Circular
polarization and (c) Linear polarization

3.10.4 Polarization Loss Factor (PLF)

In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same as the polarization
of the incoming (incident) wave. This is commonly stated as “polarization mismatch.” The
amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming signal will not be maximum
because of the polarization loss. Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave can
be written as

Ei = ρ̂w Ei (3.29)

where ρ̂w is the unit vector of the wave, and the polarization of the electric field of the
receiving antenna can be expressed as

Ea = ρ̂a Ea (3.30)

where ρ̂a is its unit vector (polarization vector), the polarization loss can be taken
into account by introducing a polarization loss factor (PLF). It is defined, based on the
polarization of the antenna in its transmitting mode, as

P LF = |ρ̂w ·ρ̂a |2 = cos2 ψp (Dimensionless) (3.31)

Where ψp is the angle between the two unit vectors. If the antenna is polarization
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

matched, its PLF will be unity and the antenna will extract maximum power from the
incoming wave. If the polarization of the incoming wave is orthogonal to the polarization
of the antenna, then there will be no power extracted by the antenna from the incoming
wave and the PLF will be zero.

3.11 Antenna input impedance

The input impedance of an antenna is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna

at its input terminals or the ratio of the voltage to current at the input terminals.

Consider the transmission-line Thevenin equivalent given in Figure 3.5 below.

Figure 3.8: Transmission-line equivalent of an antenna in transmitting mode

Vg - Voltage of the source generator

Zg - Internal impedance of the source

ZC - Characteristic impedance of the tranemission line

ZA - ZA = RA + jXA = RL + Rr + jXA - Antenna impedance

RL - Load loss resistance associated with conduction and dielectric losses

Rr - Radiation resistance of the antenna used to represent the radiation by the antenna

XA - Reactance associated with the radiation by the antenna. This accounts for the
reactive near field region of the antenna, where energy is being stored

Under ideal condition, all the energy generated by the source should be transferred
to the radiation resistance, Rr which represents radiation by the antenna. In practice
conduction/dielectric and reflections due to mismatch exists. Therefore, maximum power
can be delivered to the antenna under conjugate matching, that is RL + Rr = Rg and
XA = −Xg .

The conduction-dielectric efficiency of an antenna may also be defined as:

Rr
ηcd = (3.32)
Rr + RL
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

3.12 Antenna Vector Effective Length

The effective length of an antenna is a quantity used to determine the open circuit voltage
induced at the antenna terminals, when the plane wave is incident on the antenna.

In general, the effective length is a direction dependent quantity represented by

le (θ, ϕ) = âθ lθ (θ, ϕ) + âϕ lϕ (θ, ϕ) (3.33)

The open circuit voltage is obtained by

Voc = Ei ·le (3.34)

where

Voc - open-circuit voltage at antenna terminals

Ei - incident electric field

le - vector effective length

The incident field vector radiated by a transmitting antenna, with current Iin in its
terminals may be expressed in terms of vector effective length as

kIin −jkr
Ea = âθ Eθ + âϕ Eϕ = −jη le e (3.35)
4πr

3.13 Friis transmission equation

For line-of-sight free-space propagation conditions, it is relatively easy to derive an

expression for the received signal in a communication link. The Friis Transmission
Equation relates the power received to the power transmitted between two antennas
separated by a distance R. To simplify the derivation of the equation, we shall assume
that the transmitting and receiving antennas are reflection and polarization-matched and
that they are aligned for maximum directional radiation and reception.

Let:

Pt - input power at the terminals of the transmitting antenna

Gt - gain of the transmitting antenna

Gr - gain of the receiving antenna

R - sdistance between the transmitter and receiver

Assuming that the transmitting antenna is isotropic, the power density at the distance
R from the antenna is
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 3.9: Geometrical orientation of transmitting and receiving antennas for Friis
transmissionequation .

Pt
W0 = (3.36)
4πR2

Since the antenna is non-isotropic with some gain Gt (θ, ϕ) in the θ, ϕ direction, then

Pt Gt
W = (3.37)
4πR2

we have simply written Gt instead of Gt (θ, ϕ)

The amount of power intercepted/collected by the receiving antenna Pr equals to the

power density times the effective area of the receice antenna Ae

P t Gt
P r = W · Ae = Ae (3.38)
4πR2

The effective area Ae is related to the gain of the receiving antenna as

λ2
Ae = Gr (3.39)
4π

Therefore

Pt λ 2
P r = Gt Gr (3.40)
4πR2 4π

On rearranging yields
 2
Pr λ
= Gt Gr (3.41)
Pt 4πR
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Equation (2.33) is known as the Radio equation or the Friis transmission formular

The term (λ/4πR)2 is called the free-space loss factor, and it takes into account the
losses due to the spherical spreading of the energy by the antenna.

If ηt is the total efficiency of the transmitting antenna, ηr efficiency of the receiving

antenna, Γt and Γr the reflection mismatches for the transmitting and receiving antenna
and ρ̂t and ρ̂r the unit vectors accounting for the polarization loss factors, then equation
(2.33) can be written in the general form as:

 2
Pr λ
= ηt ηr (1 − |Γt |2 )(1 − |Γr |2 ) Dt Dr |ρ̂t ·ρ̂r |2 (3.42)
Pt 4πR

Where Dt and Dr are the directivities of the transmitting and receiving antennas.

3.14 Radar Equation

The term radar is an acronym for radio detection and ranging. A radar system is used
to measure the range or distance to some object or target such as an aeroplane that is
located in the radiating beam of the antenna.

The transmitter sends a short pulse of sinusoidally time varying energy. Some of this
energy is reflected back towards the radar unit by the target8 and is received by the
receiver. By measuring the eleapsed time between the transmitted pulse and the received
echo, the range of the target may be determined.

A radar system is very much like the communication system described in section 3.13.
The difference is that instead of a direct link, the electromagnetic waves emmitted by the
transmitter reach the transmitter via a reflection against a target.

The power density on the target at distance R1 is given by

Pt Gt
W = (3.43)
4πR1 2

The ability of the target to reflect energy back to the radar is described in terms of the
targets’ radar cross section RCS or echo area, σ. This is equivalent to the area intercepting
the power at the target.

The transmitted power incident upon the target is initially captured and then it is
reradiated isotropically.

The amount of power captured by the target is given by

Pt
Pc = σW = σGt (3.44)
4πR1 2

This power is scattered isotropically by the target. The amount of the scattered power
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 3.10: Geometrical arrangement of transmitter, target, and receiver for radar range
equation (a) bistatic radar - the transmitter is at distance R1 from the target while the
receiver is at distance R2 from the target (b) monostatic radar - The same antenna at
distance R is used for transmission and reception.

density at the position of the receiver is given by

Pc Pt
Ws = 2 = σGt (3.45)
4πR2 2
(4πR1 )(4πR2 2 )

The amount of power delivered to the receiver load is given by

Pt
Pr = Ae Ws = Aer σGt (3.46)
(4π) R1 2 R2 2
2

Where Ae is the effective area of the receiving antenna given by equation (3.31)

λ2
Ae = Gr
4π

On rearranging

σGt Gr λ2
Pr = Pt (3.47)
(4π)3 R1 2 R2 2

Equation 3.39 is known as the radar range equation.

For the general case involving losses, reflections and polarization mismatches, equation
(3.39) can be expressed as
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Pr σDt Dr λ2
= ηt ηr (1 − |Γt |2 )(1 − |Γr |2 ) |ρ̂w ·ρ̂r |2 (3.48)
Pt (4π)3 R1 2 R2 2

Where ρ̂w and ρ̂r are polarizationun it vector of the scattered waves and receiving
antenna respectively.

For a monostatic radar where the same antenna is used for transmission and reception
Gt = Gr = G and R1 = R2 = R, equation 3.39 reduces to

σG2 λ2
Pr = Pt (3.49)
(4π)3 R4

The maximum range Rmax is related to the minimum detectable power by the receiver
Pmin .

3.15 Further reading

Read about antenna equivalent areas and antenna temperature

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Tutorial

1. The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given by:

sin θ
Wrad = âr A0 (W/m2 )
r2

where A0 is the peak value of the power density, θ is the usual spherical coordinate,
and âr is the radial unit vector. Determine the total radiated power.
solution

sin θ
Wrad = âr A0 (W/m2 )
r2
2. The normalized radiation intensity of an antenna is represented by

U (θ) = cos2 θ cos2 (3θ) (0o ≤ θ ≤ 90o ), (0o ≤ ϕ ≤ 360o )

Determine the first-null beamwidth (FNBW) of the pattern

solution

F N BW = 60o

3. Find the maximum directivity of the antenna whose radiation intensity is given by

U = A0 sin θ

solution

D0 = 1.27 or

D = 1.27 sin θ

4. The radial component of the radiated power density of an infinitesimal linear dipole
is given by

sin2 θ
Wav = âr A0 (W/m2 )
r2
Determine the maximum directivity of the antenna and express the directivity as a
function of the directional angle θ
solution

D0 = 1.5

D = 1.5sin2 θ
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

5. The radiation intensity of the major lobe of many antennas can be adequately
represented by

U = B0 cos θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2), (0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π)

Where B0 is the maximum radiation intensity. Determine the half-power beam width
(HPBW) and the maximum directivity of the pattern.
solution

HP BW = 120o

D0 = 4

6. Determine the maximum directivity of an antenna whose radiation intensity is given

by

U (θ, ϕ) = B0 sin θsin2 ϕ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), (0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π)

solution
D0 = 5.0929

7. A lossless resonant half-wavelength dipole antenna, with input impedance of 73

ohms, is connected to a transmission line whose characteristic impedance is 50 ohms.
Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given approximately by

U = B0 sin3 θ

Find the maximum absolute gain of this antenna

solution
G0(abs) = 1.6376 or G0(abs) (dB) = 2.142

8. The electric field of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave given by

Ei = âx E0 (x, y)e−jkz

is incident upon a linearly polarized antenna whose electric-field polarization is

expressed as

Ea ≈ (âx + âx )E(r, θ, ϕ)

Find the polarization loss factor (PLF).

solution
1
P LF =
2
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

9. The far-zone field radiated by a small dipole of length l is given by

kIin le−jkr
Ea = âθ jη sin θ
8πr
Determine the vector effective length of the antenna
solution
l
le = −âθ sin θ
2
10. Two lossless X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz) horn antennas are separated by a distance of
100λ. The reflection coefficients at the terminals of the transmitting and receiving
antennas are 0.1 and 0.2, respectively. The maximum directivities of the transmitting
and receiving antennas (over isotropic) are 16 dB and 20 dB, respectively. Assuming
that the input power in the lossless transmission line connected to the transmitting
antenna is 2W, and the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between them
and are polarization-matched, find the power delivered to the load of the receiver.
solution
Pr = 4.777mW

11. Assume a broadcasting system operating at 100 MHz, employing a half-wave dipole
antenna, having a gain of 2.15 dBi. The power accepted by the transmit antenna is 1
kW. The minimum required power delivered by the receiving antenna is 1 nW. When
the maximum range is 500 km, what should be the minimum gain of the receiving
antenna?
solution
Gr = 2.67 or 4.27dBi

12. Consider a mobile communication system consisting of two identical transmitter-

receiver sets operating at 1 GHz. The same half-wave dipole antenna is used both
for transmission and for reception. Gt = Gr = G = 2.15 dBi. The power delivered
to the antenna in transmission is 1W. The minimum power at the antenna terminals
in reception is 65 dBm. Find the maximum allowable distance, R, between the two
sets.
solution
R = 2.20km

13. It is necessary to detect a target with a RCS of 1m2 at a range of 150 km. A
monostatic radar is used. The gain of the antenna employed is 40 dB at a frequency
of 3 GHz. The minimum power at the terminals of the antenna in receiving mode
is 100 dBm. What is the transmitting power needed and what is the size of the
effective antenna aperture?
solution
Pt = 100.46 Ae = 7.96m2 kW
 Chapter 4

SIMPLE RADIATING SYSTEMS

Spatial current distributions for thin antennas of different lengths may be assumed to be

(i) Constant I(z) = I0 - fot infinitesmal (l ≤ λ/50) and capacitor plate or top-hat
loaded antennas

(ii) Triangular variations- (λ/50 < l < λ/10)

(iii) Sinusoidal variations - Finite length dipoles

In this section, we shall consider the radiation fields of the following antennas:

ˆ Infinitesmal (Hertzian) dipole

ˆ Half-wave dipole antenna

4.1 Infinitesmal (Hertzian) dipole

In chapter 2, we determined the radiated fields of an infinitesimal antenna. For a wire

antenna to be classified as an infinitesimal dipole, its overall length must be very small
(usually l ≤ λ/50). Despite the infinitesimal dipole not being practical, they are used
as building blocks for more complex geometries. The far field radiated E and H fields
of an infinitesimal dipole are given in equations (2.44) and (2.55). These fields are valid
everywhere except at the source itself. These are repeated below for convenience as:

kI0 δl sin θ −jkr

Hϕ = j e âϕ
4πr

kI0 δl sin θ −jkr

Eθ = jη0 e âθ
4πr

4.1.1 Radiation power density

The complex Poynting vector can be obtained from equation (3.1) as:

1
Wav = (E × H∗ )
2

We are interested only in the magnitudes of the radiated far fields. Therefore,

k 2 I0 2 (δl)2
Wav = η0 sin2 θâr W/m2 (4.1)
32π 2 r2

42
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

4.1.2 Radiation resistance

The total radiated power is obtained from equation (3.2).

2π π
k 2 I0 2 (δl)2
ZZ Z Z
Prad = Wav · ds = η0 sin2 θ · r2 sin θ dθ dϕ (4.2)
s 0 0 32π 2 r2

This can be simplified as: Z 2π

dϕ = 2π
0
Z π
4
sin3 θ dθ =
0 3
Substituting k = 2π/λ
 2
π I0 δl
Prad = η0 (4.3)
3 λ

The antenna radiates its real power through the radiation resistance which is
determined from the expression P = 12 I02 Rr . Equating this expression with equation (4.3)
and setting η0 = 120π, the intrinsic impedance, the radiation resistance of an infinitesmal
dipole is given by equation (4.4).
 2
π I0 δl 1
η0 = I02 Rr
3 λ 2
 2
2 δl
Rr = 80π (4.4)
λ

This represents the value of a fictitious resistance that dissipates the same amount of
time average power as that radiated by the antenna when a current of the same peak
amplitude as that in the antenna is passed through it.

4.1.3 Radiation pattern

Refer to section 3.1 and Figs. 3.1 and 3.2

4.1.4 Directivity

Recall from section 3.4 that directivity is defined as the ration of the maximum radiation
intensity radiated by the antenna to the average intensity. We may use equation (3.9) as:

Umax (θ, ϕ)
D = 4π
Prad

k 2 I0 2 (δl)2
U = r2 Wav = η0 sin2 θ from equation (4.1) (4.5)
32π 2
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

k 2 I0 2 (δl)2
Umax = η0
32π 2
k 2 I0 2 (δl)2 4
Prad = η0 2
· 2π ·
32π 3
3
D = Dmax = = 1.5 (4.6)
2

4.2 Half-wave dipole antenna

(The reference text book uses a different approach by determining E and H fields instead
of the magnetic vector potential A)

The half-wavelength (l = λ/2) dipole antenna shown in Fig. 4.1 is one of the simplest
practical antennas. The radiated fields of an antenna of any length having a specified
current distribution can be determined by dividing the antenna into a series of Hertzian
dipoles and applying the principle of superposition.

Figure 4.1: Geometry of the half-wave dipole (l = λ/2)

The current distributions for different lengths of wire antennas have been illustrated
in the reference book (Balanis) - see pages 18-20

We consider a center-fed half-wave dipole positioned symmetrically about the origin

with its length directed along the z-axis. The current distribution may be expressed as:
(
Im sin k(l/2 − z) z ≥ 0
I(z) = (4.7)
Im sin k(l/2 + z) z ≤ 0

This current distribution arises from the standing wave pattern of an open circuited
transmission line.

The geometrical arrangement for the analysis of a half-wave dipole is shown in Fig. 4.
(a). To find the radiation fields for the λ/2 dipole, we divide it into a number of hertzian
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 4.2: Current distributions for various centre-fed dipoles (a) l = λ/2, (b) l = 3/4λ
(c) l = λ and (d) l = 3/2λ

dipoles of lengthd dz ′ as shown.

R is defined as the distance from any point on the source to the observation point

Because the length of the dipole is small, the values of R for different values of z ′ along
the length of the wire (−l/2 ≤ z ′ ≤ l/2) are not much different from r. Therefore, R may
be approximated to R ≈ r. However, this approximation introduces a significant phase
error in the e−jkR term. The difference in R and r may be less than one part in a thousand,
however, this could represent a distance of several wavelengths. A better approximation
is obtained from Fig. 4. (b) as R ≈ r − z ′ cos θ.

Therefore we make the following approximations:

R≈r for amplitude terms. (4.8)

R ≈ r − z ′ cos θ for phase terms. (4.9)

If we consider a single infinitesmal dipole situated at distance z ′ from the origin, the
magnetic vector potential at a point P due to a current element I0 dz ′ can be expressed
as:

µI0 dz ′ −jkR
dAz ′ = e (4.10)
4πR
where R is the distance between I0 dz ′ and the point P .

The vector potential due to all such current elements at a distance P is given by:
Z l/2 Z 0 Z l/2
′ µI0 (z) −jkR ′ µI0 (z) −jkR ′
dAz ′ dz = e dz + e dz (4.11)
z ′ =−l/2 z ′ =−l/2 4πR z ′ =0 4πR

We shall invoke equations (4.7), (4.8) and (4.9)

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

sin(kl/2 − kz ′ ) = sin(2π/λ · λ/4 − kz ′ ) = sin(π/2 − kz ′ ) = cos kz ′

sin(kl/2 + kz ′ ) = sin(2π/λ · λ/4 + kz ′ ) = sin(π/2 + kz ′ ) = cos kz ′

Therefore
Z l/2 Z 0 Z l/2
µI0 ′ ′ −jk(r−z ′ cosθ) µI0
′ ′
dAz ′ dz = cos(kz )e dz + cos(kz ′ )e−jk(r−z cos θ)
dz ′
z ′ =−l/2 4πr z ′ =−l/2 4πr z ′ =0

!
Z l/2 Z 0 Z l/2
µI0 −jkr jkz ′ cosθ jkz ′
dAz ′ dz ′ = e cos(kz ′ )e dz ′ + cos(kz ′ )e cos θ
dz ′
z ′ =−l/2 4πr z ′ =−l/2 z ′ =0

Changing the limits of integration,

!
Z l/2 Z l/2 Z l/2
µI0 −jkr′ ′ −jkz ′ cosθ ′ ′ jkz ′ cos θ ′
dAz ′ dz = e cos(kz )e dz + cos(kz )e dz
z ′ =−l/2 4πr z ′ =0 z ′ =0

!
Z l/2 Z l/2
µI0 −jkr
dAz ′ dz ′ = e 2 cos(kz ′ ) cos(kz ′ cosθ) dz ′
z ′ =−l/2 4πr z ′ =0

Using the identity 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A − B)

Z l/2 Z l/2
µI0 −jkr
′
cos kz ′ (1 + cos θ) + cos kz ′ (1 − cos θ) dz ′


dAz ′ dz = e
z ′ =−l/2 4πr z ′ =0

l/2 l/2 !
sin kz ′ (1 + cos θ) sin kz ′ (1 − cos θ)
 
µI0 −jkr
Az ′ = e +
4πr k(1 + cos θ) 0 k(1 − cos θ) 0

 
µI0 −jkr 2 cos (π/2 cos θ)
A =
z′ e
4πr k sin2 θ

 
µI0 −jkr cos (π/2 cos θ)
Az ′ = e (4.12)
2πkr sin2 θ

To obtain the E and H fields, we transform the coordinates to spherical, just as in the
case of the Hertzian dipole.
 
µI0 −jkr cos (π/2 cos θ)
Ar = e cos θ (4.13)
2πkr sin2 θ
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

 
µI0 −jkr cos (π/2 cos θ)
Aθ = − e sin θ (4.14)
2πkr sin2 θ

H is determined from
1
H= (∇ × A)
µ

As we had seen before, the Hϕ component is obtained from:

 
1 ∂ ∂Ar
Hϕ = (rAθ ) −
µr ∂r ∂θ

Performing this curl operation and neglecting the near fields (those that vary as 1/r2 ,
we obtain

 
I0 −jkr cos (π/2 cos θ)
Hϕ = j e (4.15)
2πr sin θ

 
η0 I0 −jkr cos (π/2 cos θ)
Eθ = j e (4.16)
2πr sin θ

4.2.1 Radiation power density

I02 −jkr cos2 (π/2 cos θ)

 
1 ∗


Wav = Eθ × Hϕ = η0 2 2 e (4.17)
2 8π r sin2 θ

4.2.2 Radiation resistance

To obtain the total radiated power, we integrate equation 4.17 over some closed surface
ds = r2 sinθdθ dϕâr

2π π
I02 −jkr cos2 (π/2 cos θ) 2
Z Z  
Prad = = η0 2 2 e r sinθ dθ dϕ (4.18)
0 0 8π r sin2 θ
Rπ cos2 (π/2 cos θ)
The evaluation of the integral θ=0 sin θ dθ involves the transformation of the
R cos(u)
integral into a cosine integral of the form u du and is beyond the scope of this notes.
Therefore, we only state that:

Prad = 36.565I02 (4.19)

By equating this expression to Prad = 1/2Rr I02 , the radiation resistance is obtained as

Rr = 73.13Ω (4.20)
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

4.2.3 Radiation pattern

|I0 |2 cos2 (π/2 cos θ)

 
2
U = r Wav = η0 2 (4.21)
8π sin2 θ

The normalized power density pattern can be expressed as

cos2 (π/2 cos θ)

F (θ, ϕ) = 2 ≈ sin3 θ
sin θ

Figure 4.3: 2-D E plane radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole antenna

Figure 4.4: 3-D radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole antenna

4.2.4 Directivity

We make use of equation (2.9)

Umax (θ, ϕ)
D = 4π
Prad

We make use of equation (4.21)

|I0 |2 cos2 (π/2 cos θ) |I0 |2

U = η0 2 ≈ η 0 sin3 θ
8π 2 r2 sin θ 8π 2 r2

|I0 |2
Umax = η0 (4.22)
8π 2
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Prad = 36.565I02 from equation (4.19)

120π · |I0 |2 1
D = 4π 2
· = 1.64 (4.23)
8π 36.565 · |I0 |2

4.3 Discussion

As the length of the antenna increases, the beam becomes narrower. Because of that, the
directivity should also increase with length. However, as the length of the dipole increases
beyond one wavelength (l > λ), the number of lobes begin to increase and the antenna
loses its directional properties as shown in the figure 4.5 below.

Figure 4.5: Field radiation pattern for different dipole antenna lengths: (a) l = λ/2, (b)
l = λ and (c) l = 3λ/2
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Tutorial

1. Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole whose overall length is l =

λ/50
solution

Rr = 0.316Ω

2. For an infinitesimal dipole determine and interpret the vector effective length. At
what incidence angle does the open-circuit maximum voltage occurs at the output
terminals of the dipole if the electric-field intensity of the incident wave is 10 mV/m?
What is the open-circuit maximum voltage? The length of the dipole is 10 cm.
solution

le = −âθ l sin θ

Voc |max = 10 × 10−3 V

 Chapter 5

ANTENNA ARRAYS
The radiation pattern of a single element antenna is characterized by

ˆ Wide beamwidth

ˆ Low directivity

ˆ Low gain

Most applications require antenna designs with high directive characteristics and high
gains. This can be accomplished by increasing the electrical length of the antenna either
by way of increasing the size of individual antenna elements or formation of an assembly
of radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical configuration. Such a configuration
of multiple radiating elements is referred to as an array antenna or simply an array. In
most cases, the elements of an array are identical. However, this is not necessary, but it
is convenient, simpler and more practical.

The total field of the array is determined by the vector addition of the fields radiated
by the individual elements. To provide directive patterns, it is necessary that the fields
from the elements of the array interfere constructively (add) in the desired directions and
interfere destructively (cancel each other) in the remaining space.

In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls that can be used to
shape the overall pattern of the antenna. These are:

(1) The geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, rectangular,
spherical etc)

(2) The relative displacement between the elements

(3) The excitation amplitude of the individual elements

(4) The excitation phase of the individual elements

(5) The relative pattern of the individual elements

The simplest and one of the most practical arrays is formed by placing the elements
along a line. We shall first consider a two-element array. Thereafter, we introduce the
principle of pattern multiplication and conclude with the analysis of an N-element array.

51
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

5.1 Two-element array

Fig. 5.1 is an array of two infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along the z-axis. We
assume that there is no coupling between the two elements. Futher, we assume that the
dipoles carry currents of equal magnitude I0 but with a phase difference α between the
elements. We wish to determine the proper phase relationship of the currents I1 and I2
to produce the desired pattern.

I1 = I0 ̸ α − current in element 1 with a leading phase α wrt element 2

I2 = I0 − current in the element 2

Figure 5.1: Two infinitesmal dipoles

The total far-field electric field at a point P, radiated by the two elements is determined
from
Et = E1 + E2 (5.1)

Where:

kI1 δl cos θ1 −jkr1

E1 = jη0 e âθ
4πr1
kI2 δl cos θ2 −jkr2
E2 = jη0 e âθ
4πr2

(Note the change from sin to cosine due to the dipole orientation)

We assume that point P is sufficiently far from the origin such that we can make the
approximations (recall from equations (4.8) and (4.9):)

θ1 ≈ θ2 ≈ θ

r1 ≈ r2 ≈ r − for amplitude variations

ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

)
r1 = r − d2 cosθ
− for phase variations
r2 = r + d2 cosθ

kI0 δl cos θ1 −jkr1 jα kI0 δl cos θ2 −jkr2

Et = jη0 e e âθ + jη0 e
4πr1 4πr2

kI0 δl cos θ n −jk(r−d/2) cos θ jα o

Et = âθ jη0 e e + e−jk(r+d/2cosθ)
4πr

With further manipulations:

kI0 δl cos θ −jkr jα/2 n j[k(d/2) cos θ+α/2] o

Et = âθ jη0 e e + e−jk[(d/2)cosθ)+α/2]
e

kI0 δl cos θ −jkr jα/2

 
1
Et = âθ jη0 e 2 cos (kd cos θ + α)
e 2

We may re-write:
" #
kI0 δl cos θ −jkr

jα/2 1
Et = e âθ jη0 2 cos (kd cos θ + α) (5.2)
e 2

The first term in square brackets of equation (5.2) represents the field of an infinitesmal
dipole at the origin while the second term is referred to as the array factor (AF). The
normalized array factor can be expressed as

1
(AF )n = cos (kd cos θ + α) (5.3)
2

The array factor is a function of the geometry of the array and the excitation phase.
By varying the separation d and/or the phase α between the elements, the characteristics
of the array factor and of the total field of the array can be controlled.

5.2 Principle of pattern multiplication

In the previous section, we saw that the far-field of a uniform two-element array of identical
elements is equal to the product of a single element at the origin and the array factor (AF)
of that array. This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of identical elements.
This is valid for arrays with any number of identical elements which do not necessarily
have identical magnitudes, phases and /or spacing between them. The AF, in general,
is a function of the number of elements, their geometrical arrangement, their relative
magnitudes, their relative phases and their spacing’s. The AF will be of simpler form
if the elements have identical amplitudes, phases and spacing. Since the AF does not
depend on the directional characteristics of the radiating elements themselves, it can be
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

formulated using a point-source array, and the total field of an actual array is obtained
using the principle of pattern multiplication.

The principle of pattern multiplication states: The radiation pattern of an array

is the product of the array function of the individual antenna with the array
pattern (AF) function

5.3 N-element linear array – equal amplitude and spacing

It has been previously stated that the AF does not depend on the directional characteristics
of the radiating elements. Therefore, AF can be formulated using a point-source array. In
this section, we establish the generalization of the AF for N-elements.

We assume that the elements have identical current amplitudes I0 , but each succeeding
element has a α phase lead current excitation relative to the preceding one. This is referred
to as a uniform array

The array factor is given by:

AF = 1 + ej(kd cos θ+α) + ej2(kd cos θ+α) + · · · + ej(N −1)(kd cos θ+α) (5.4)

Defining ψ = kd cos θ + α, this can be written as:

N
X
AF = ej(n−1)ψ (5.5)
n=1

To determine this sum, we recall the sum of geometric series for N-terms

N
X 1 − aN +1
an =
1−a
n=0

The sum in equation (5.5) reduces to:

1 − ejN ψ
AF = (5.6)
1 − ejψ

!
ejN ψ/2 e−jN ψ/2 − ejN ψ/2
AF = jψ/2
e −ejψ/2 − ejψ/2

 
j(N −1)ψ/2 sin (N ψ/2)
AF = e
sin ψ/2

If the reference point is the physical center of the array, the AF may further be
simplified. In addition, the AF is normalized so that the maximum value is equal to
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

unity. This results in equation (5.7):

 
1 sin (N ψ/2)
AF = (5.7)
N sin ψ/2

Equation (5.7) behaves like the more familiar sinc function sin(x)/x, except that it is
periodic, repeating itself after every 2π units along the ψ-axis. This is illustrated in Fig.
5.2 for different values of N .

Figure 5.2: Array factor of a uniform array for different number of elements (a) 3 elements
(b) 5 elements and (c) 10 elements

The nulls of the array can be obtained by setting sin (N ψ/2) equal to zero. That is:
 
N N
sin ψ =0 ⇒ ψ|θ=θn = ±nπ (5.8)
2 2
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

  
−1 λ 2n
θn = cos −α ± π (5.9)
2πd N

n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
n ̸= N, 2N, 3N, · · ·

The AF attains a maximum for n = N, 2N, 3N, · · · since the function sin(0)/0 = 1. We
observe that the number of the nulls that can exist is a function of the separation d and
the phase excitation difference α.

The intervening smaller maxima are called sidelobes. Equation (5.7) can be solved for
the secondary maxima (sidelobes) as well as -3dB point of the array factor.

5.4 Broadside and end-fire arrays

5.4.1 Broadside array

In many applications, it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of an array directed

normal to the axis of the array (θ = 90o orθ = 270o ). To optimize the design, the maxima
of the single element and that of the array factorshould both be directed toward θ = 0o .
The requirements of the single elements can be accomplished by the judicious choice of
the radiators, and those of the array factor by the proper separation and excitation of the
individual radiators.

For this case, the maximum occurs when ψ = 0o . This implies that α = 0o - all the
elements should have the same phase excitation in addition to equal amplitude excitation.
In addition, to avoid grating lobes or multiple maxima in other directions, the separation
between the elements d ̸= nλ, n = 1, 2, 3, · · · . Fig. 5.3 shows a 3-D plot of a 10-element
array with α = 0o and d = λ/4.

The expressions for the nulls, maxima, half-power points and minor lobe maxima for
broadside arrays are given below:

 
−1 nλ
NULLS θn = cos ± n = 1, 2, 3, · · · n ̸= N, 2N, 3N, · · · (5.10)
Nd

 
−1 mλ
MAXIMA θmax = cos ± m = 1, 2, 3, · · · (5.11)
d

  
−1 λ (2s + 1)
MINOR LOBE MAXIMA θs ≈ cos ± s = 1, 2, 3, · · · πd/λ << 1
2d N
(5.12)

 
1.391λ
HALF-POWER POINTS θh ≈ cos−1 ± πd/λ << 1 (5.13)
πN d
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 5.3: Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for broadside (N=10, α = 0o , d = λ/4).

5.4.2 End-fire array

It may be desirable to direct the maximum radiation along the axis of the array (end-fire).
As a matter of fact, it may be necessary that it radiates toward only one direction (either
θ = 0o orθ = 180o .

To direct the maximum towards θ = 0o , ψ = kd cos θ + α = 0 or α = −kd.

To direct the maximum towards θ = 180o , ψ = kd cos θ + α = 0 or α = kd

If the element separation d = λ/2, the end-fire occurs simultaneously in both directions.

If the element spacing is a multiple of the wavelength (d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3, · · · ), then

in addition to having end-fire radiation in both directions, there also exists maxima in the
broadside directions.

To have only one end-fire maximum and to avoid any grating lobes, the maximum
spacing between the elements should be less than dmax < λ/2.

Figs. 5.4 (a) and (b) show 3-D radiation patterns of a 10-element array with d = λ/4,
α = +kd and λ = −kd respectively

The expressions for the nulls, maxima, half-power points and minor lobe maxima for
end-fire arrays are given below:

 
−1 nλ
NULLS θn = cos 1− n = 1, 2, 3, · · · n ̸= N, 2N, 3N, · · · (5.14)
Nd

 
−1 mλ
MAXIMA θmax = cos 1− m = 1, 2, 3, · · · (5.15)
d
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Figure 5.4: Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for end-fire arrays toward θ = 0o and
θ = 180o (N=10, d = λ/4).

  
−1 λ (2s + 1)
MINOR LOBE MAXIMA θs ≈ cos 1− s = 1, 2, 3, · · · πd/λ << 1
2d N
(5.16)

 
−1 1.391λ
HALF-POWER POINTS θh ≈ cos 1− πd/λ << 1 (5.17)
πN d
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

Tutorial

1. For the array shown in Fig. 5.1, find the nulls of the total field when d = λ/4 for

(a) α = 0o
(b) α = − π2
(c) α = + π2
Solution - see Balanis 3rd edition page 286
The electric field of a single dipole at the origin oriented as shown in Fig. 5.1
can generally be written as:

E = E0 f (θ, ϕ)âθ = E0 cos θâθ

Because we are interested only in the directional properties, we only consider

the normalized field E = cos θ. The normalized array factor is expressed as
AF = cos 12 (kd cos θ + α). From the principle of pattern multiplication:

Total E = Field of single element at origin × AF

Therefore:
1
Etotal = cos θ cos (kd cos θ + α)
2
By replacing the value of d = λ/4 and the different values of α given, we solve
for the zeros of the above expression.

2. Consider an array of two identical infinitesimal dipoles oriented as shown in Fig. 5.1.
For a separation d and phase excitation difference α between the elements, find the
angles of observation where the nulls of the array occur.
Solution - see Balanis 3rd edition page 290
The solution if to find the general expression for various angles θ for which the field
is zero.

3. Sketch the electric field pattern for the array factor for a two-element array given the
following distance of separation and phase excitation difference between the elements.

(a) d = λ/2 and α = 0

(b) d = λ/2 and α = π
(c) d = λ/4 and α = π/2
Solution see Antenna theory and design by Thiele Stutzman, pages 113-115
The approach is to replace the appropriate values of d and α in the expression
AF = cos 12 (kd cos θ + α). We then tabulate the AF for different values of θ as
shown below.
Note that the number of the points to plot depend on the overall shape of
the AF. For example, for (a) and (b) above, it may be sufficient to determine
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

θ 0 π/6 2π/6 3π/6 4π/6 5π/6 6π/6 7π/6 8π/6 9π/6 10π/6 11π/6
AF

only the angles of maxima and null fields to sketch the fields. More points are
required to plot the pattern in (c). These patterns are plotted in the figure
below.

We shall briefly look at how to obtain such polar plot patterns from a
rectangular plot similar to that given in Fig. 5.2.

4. Use the principle of pattern multiplication to determine the total fields of the antenna
arrays given in example 1 above
Solution - see Balanis 3rd edition page 289-292 - (Note the orientation of the polar
plot with 0o on top)
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

5. Sketch the E-plane radiation pattern for a 4-element broadside array with a distance
of separation d = λ/2.
solution
Recall that α = 0 and given N=4.
We determine the maxima and the nulls of the broadside AF which is given by
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

equation (5.7) and repeated here since we are only interested with directional
characteristics.
sin (N ψ/2)
AF =
sin ψ/2

The nulls occur when sin (N ψ/2) = 0 ⇒ N ψ/2 = ±nπ

2πd 2nπ
ψ = kd cos θ = cos θ = ±
λ N
 
nλ
θn = cos−1 ± for n = 1, 2, · · · and n ̸= N (Equation 5.10)
Nd

The nulls occur at 0o , 60o and 120o . (Use Equation 5.11)

We expect that the principal maximum occurs in the θmax = ±90o axis.
The secondary maxima occur at sin (N ψ/2) = ±1 ⇒ N ψ/2 = ±(2m + 1)π/2

2πd (2s + 1)π

ψ = kd cos θ = cos θ = ±
λ N
 
(2s + 1)λ
θs = cos−1 for s = 1, 2 · · · (Equation 5.12)
2N d

The secondary maxima occur at θs = ±41.4o and ± 138.6o

6. Sketch the E-plane radiation pattern for a 4-element broadside array with a distance
of separation d=λ/2 and α = - π.
solution
We make use of equations 5.14, 4.15 and 5.16 to determine the angles of nulls and
the principal and secondary maxima.

 
−1 nλ
θn = cos 1− n = 1, 2, 3, · · · n ̸= N, 2N, 3N, · · ·
Nd

The nulls occur at

 
−1 mλ
θmax = cos 1− m = 1, 2, 3, · · · (5.18)
d

The maxima occur at

  
−1 λ (2s + 1)
θs ≈ cos 1− s = 1, 2, 3, · · · πd/λ << 1 (5.19)
2d N

The minor lobe maxima occur at

 Chapter 6

PRACTICAL RADIATING
ANTENNAS AND ARRAYS
Wire antennas are some of the oldest, simplest, cheapest and the most versatile for many
applications. Wire antennas are made either from solid wires or tubular conductors and
may take various shapes and configurations. Some of the various resonant wire antennas
include the straight wire dipoles, folded dipoles, Yagi-Uda arrays, loops among others.

6.1 Folded-dipole Antennas

One of the extremely practical antennas is the folded dipole antenna. The antenna consists
of two parallel dipoles connected at the ends to form a narrow wire loop as shown in Fig.
6.1. The dimensions d is much smaller than L. One dipole is split at the center and
connected to the transmission line. The input impedance of a folded-dipole at resonance
is four times that of an ordinary half-wave. That is ZF D = 4 × 73.13Ω = 292.5Ω.

This impedance is close to 300Ω of the common twin-lead transmission line, commonly
used for television receivers. In addition to the desirable impedance properties, the half-
wave folded-dipole also has a wider impedance bandwidth compared to the ordinary half-
wave dipole. For this reason, it is frequently used as a feed antenna for Yagi-Uda arrays
and other antennas.

6.2 Loop Antennas

Loop antennas take different forms such as rectangle, square, circle, triangle, ellipse and
other configurations. The circular loop is the most popular owing to its simplicity in
analysis and construction. A small loop (circular or square) is equivalent to a magnetic
dipole, whose axis is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The loss resistance of a
single-turn electrically small loop (whose circumference C < λ/10, where λ is the free
space wavelength) is much larger than its loss resistance. For this reason, the small loop
antennas are poor radiators with low radiation efficiencies. The radiation resistance of the
loop can be increased by either increasing the electrical size of the circumference, use of
multi-turn loops or use of a ferrite core of high permeability (ferrite loop).

63
ECE 444 - Antenna Engineering: prepared by E. Chemweno

6.3 Horizontal-wire Antennas

6.4 Rhombic Antennas

6.5 Slot Antennas

6.6 Biconical Antennas

6.7 Helical Antennas

6.8 Horn Antennas