The following article is one chapter of the book

Björn Risch (Ed.)

Teaching Chemistry
around the World

Waxmann 2010
Münster / New York / München / Berlin
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Vanessa Kind1

United Kingdom

Basic Structure of the Educational System

Education is compulsory for five- to sixteen-year-olds in all four nations compri-
sing the UK, namely, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales: children
must start formal education in the school year in which their fifth birthday falls
between 1st September and 31st August. Thus, the basic entitlement to education
paid for by the state lasts eleven years. However, optional state-funded education is
also offered to three- to five-year-olds: during the school year, three-year-olds are
entitled to 12.5 hours per week in a nursery, while four-year-olds can attend full-
time, formal “Reception” classes linked to schools for five- to seven- or five- to
eleven-year-olds. Reception classes are popular and are viewed positively by many
families. Older pupils, although they can leave school at the age of sixteen, are now
expected to remain in further education or training to age eighteen. An extra year
beyond the age of eighteen is available for pupils needing to re-take a year due to
illness or other personal factors. Hence, a pupil could receive education from age
three to nineteen.
The UK school year begins in September and ends in July. School years are
divided into three periods, called “terms”, of roughly three months. Each term is
further divided into two halves by a one week “half-term” break. Local traditions
dictate precise timings of school holidays across the country. A typical school day
begins between 8.30 and 9.00 am and ends between 3.00 and 3.30 pm for all
children regardless of age, although a few schools have adopted a “continental” day
beginning at around 8.00 am and ending at 2.00 pm. Secondary school lessons last
typically one hour each, but this varies considerably – school managers are free to
decide how best to organise timetables for their pupils and staff. Provision of
school meals is a strong UK tradition: children of all ages have access to a hot
lunchtime meal, often cooked on their school’s premises. Children from low
income families are entitled to free school meals – the proportion of children
receiving free school meals is regarded as a measure of the extent of poverty in a
local community. Those who do not want a school meal can bring food to school as
a “packed lunch”. Some schools open earlier, so pupils can arrive in time to have
breakfast, as this is also regarded as important for ensuring children are well-fed
and ready for their education.

1 Note that any opinions expressed are those of the author and are made in a personal capacity.

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State education is funded by a combination of local and national taxation. Local

Authorities (LAs) in each region control the type of school and pupil numbers, and
with school management teams are responsible for appointing and supporting
teachers. National organisations such as the Qualifications and Curriculum
Development Authority (QCDA from July 2009, formerly QCA) and the Office for
Standards in Education (Ofsted) determine curriculum and assessment and
inspection regimes respectively. Children in the UK attend primary school from
age five to eleven and secondary school from age eleven to sixteen or eleven to
nineteen. Primary education is split between “infant” for five- to seven-year-olds and
“junior” for seven- to eleven-year-olds. Within this, variation between nations and
local areas is apparent. For example, in Scotland, pupils start university education
aged seventeen; in some areas of England children transfer to secondary school at
age thirteen, rather than eleven. Secondary schools nationwide can be for eleven- to
sixteen-year-olds, with separate schools for sixteen- to nineteen-year-olds, but some
LAs provide eleven to nineteen secondary schools or a mixture of eleven to sixteen,
eleven to nineteen and sixteen to nineteen schools. Secondary schools for girls or
boys only and those with a religious outlook are also found, although the
distribution of such schools is inconsistent across the nation. A few LAs offer
“selective” secondary education, in which access to academically-oriented
“grammar” schools is determined by competitive examination taken at age eleven.
Most areas offer comprehensive, that is, non-selective education for all children at
all phases.
Chemistry becomes a recognisable subject at secondary school, and is taught at
many universities throughout the UK.

Differences Between England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland

In Northern Ireland, England and Wales, compulsory education divides into Key
Stages (KS) numbered 1–4: KS1 refers to five- to seven-year-olds; KS2 to eight- to
eleven-year-olds; KS3 to eleven- to fourteen-year-olds and KS4 to fourteen- to
sixteen-year-olds. Overlap in ages between KS2, 3 and 4 occurs as teachers are
able to decide exactly when to start teaching the curriculum content. The four Key
Stages are underpinned by the Foundation Stage for three- to five-year-olds.
Science is a “core” curriculum subject, meaning that children are assessed in their
progress from KS1 onwards. KS1 assessments are carried out by teachers. At KS2
children are assessed by their teachers and, up to 2009, through formal, national
examinations, called Standard Assessment Tests (SATs). Achievement at KS3 and
4 has been measured by SATs and General Certificate of Secondary Education
(GCSE) examinations respectively. Recent changes mean that from 2010 teacher
assessments will be used to assess progress at KS2 and 3, while examinations
remain for KS4. The National Curriculum defines what is taught: England and
Wales have a joint document [1], while Northern Ireland has a separate document
[2].

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The education system in Scotland runs differently to the rest of the UK. Here, there
is no national curriculum – local school areas are responsible for deciding what to
teach. At age fourteen, children enter “Standard Grade” 3, and prepare for
“Standard Grade” examination programmes, but can take Intermediate and Higher
Level Qualifications to prepare for university entrance [3].
The main focus for this paper will be the National Curriculum for England and
Wales, as this is learned by and influences the chemical education of the majority
of the population of the UK. Nevertheless, the Scottish and Northern Irish systems
make positive, distinctive contributions to science teaching and learning in the UK.
For example, the Northern Ireland curriculum adopts a social emphasis on
development of individuals and the contributions that pupils can make to society,
while the independence of the Scottish system is regarded as leading to high
standards of professionalism among teachers and good levels of knowledge among
its pupils.

The Origins of Science in UK Schools

Science in England and Wales originated as a school subject in the 1850s, as the
Industrial Revolution and significant discoveries, theories and inventions began to
impact on daily life. School science began as part of a “gentleman’s education”,
being offered at various public (fee-paying) schools. In 1902, Local Education
Authorities (now called Local Authorities) responsible for primary and secondary
schools in their own areas were established. Science took its place as a subject,
based mainly on rote learning. The horrors of the First World War brought changes,
as realisation dawned that better levels of scientific knowledge may have helped
reduce the trauma soldiers suffered. In response, knowledge-based science courses
were developed, split by gender and ability, so boys learned physics, chemistry, car
maintenance and “rural science”, that is, growing food and caring for the land,
while girls learned biology, botany, zoology and “domestic science”, that is,
cookery and housekeeping skills.
The post-Sputnik era of the 1950s–1960s saw some science curricula develop
along heuristic lines, adopting principles established by the Nuffield Foundation
(Waring, 1979) – that children should work “as scientists” discovering for them-
selves. This contributed to practical science, experimentation and investigation be-
coming popular in school science lessons, traditions which retain a strong focus in
the British system today. 1950s–1970s school science focused heavily on preparing
high ability pupils for university entrance using a combination of factual learning
and development of specific practical and technical skills. In the 1960s and 1970s,
a system of comprehensive schools was implemented in England and Wales that
ensured all children were taught together, rather than in separate schools on the
basis of spurious intelligence test results. Science courses allowed some variation at
age sixteen – high ability pupils were taught to “Ordinary”, or “O” level standard,

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while others followed “Certificate of Secondary Education”, or “CSE” courses. In

1988 these were combined into one qualification, the General Certificate of
Secondary Education (“GCSE”). Gender differences, specifically girls favouring
biology and boys physics, remained.
In 1989, a new, formal National Curriculum was implemented that described for
the first time the entitlement for all children aged five to sixteen. Science was
taught under the principle “science for all”, meaning that all pupils should study all
three sciences. Subsequently, discussion took place about whether the science
described in the National Curriculum was suitable for everyone. An influential
report “Beyond 2000” [4] suggested changes were necessary in order to better
address the science learning needs of every pupil. Millar and Osborne proposed
scientific literacy as the organising principle, while achieving a high level of
detailed factual science knowledge is an option for specific pupils. They suggested
adopting “explanatory stories”, such as the particulate nature of matter, and the
Earth as a planet in a Universe, as key content for everyone, together with teaching
“ideas-about-science”, that is, ideas showing how reliable knowledge about the
natural world has been and is being obtained [4]. Following widespread discussion,
the National Curriculum was revised for fourteen- to sixteen-year-olds in 2004 and
for eleven- to fourteen-year-olds in 2007. The formal academic content was reduced
drastically and scientific enquiry, or “How Science Works”, was introduced to
embrace scientific literacy themes allied to practical skills. The content described
here refers to these latest revisions.

Science in Key Stages

The England and Wales National Curriculum for science is divided into four
sections entitled “scientific enquiry” (How Science Works); “life processes and
living things”; “materials and their properties”; and “physical processes”.
Chemistry features are mainly covered in the section “materials and their
properties”. The themes are introduced through the Foundation stage (for three- to
five-year-olds) and primary education, to ensure that secondary aged children are
fully prepared for more detailed knowledge and conceptual understanding. A brief
description of science education in each stage is provided.

Foundation stage education for under five-year-olds

The Foundation stage curriculum offers a wide range of skill- and play-based
activities that help develop good learning and social skills. Children are encouraged
to read, write and develop basic number skills. They learn to use computers, play
sports, make observations about their world, take part in artistic and other projects
and visit locations of interest in their area. Science is introduced through using the
senses to collect information, for example about “hot” and “cold” environments or
objects; seeing changes, such as in growth of plants; looking at differences between
objects and making simple measurements.
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Primary education for five- to eleven-year-olds

The primary curriculum is broad, providing legal entitlement to learn art and design,
design and technology, English, geography, history, information and communi-
cation technology, mathematics, music, physical education, religious education and
science. Access to one or more foreign language, usually French, German and/or
Spanish, is also an entitlement. Primary school teachers have to allocate time
carefully to ensure the curriculum is covered. The recent Rose Review [5] of the
primary curriculum has explored this, recommending that “science and
technological understanding” remains one of six major areas of learning.

Key Stage 1
At Key Stage 1, children are introduced to simple experiments to collect evidence
by making observations and measurements, asking “How?”, “Why?” and “What
will happen if …?” questions. The section of the curriculum related to chemistry
ensures that similarities and differences between materials are taught, together with
properties that enable groupings to be made by texture, use, and/or density, as well
as how materials change by squashing, bending or twisting, heating and cooling.

Key Stage 2
At Key Stage 2, children learn to plan an investigation, considering data they need
to collect and how to make a test “fair” by changing one factor at a time. Simple
equipment, such as data-loggers, is introduced to help systematic data collection.
Children are taught to make repeat observations and to recognise rogue values.
They examine data for patterns and draw conclusions that relate to predictions and
scientific knowledge. Children’s understanding of materials is developed by
introducing properties such as magnetism, insulation/conductance of heat and
electricity. Experiments relating to states of matter and reversible and non-
reversible changes are carried out.

Secondary education for eleven- to sixteen-year-olds

Secondary education divides into two Key Stages – KS3 is for children aged
between eleven and fourteen, while KS4 relates to pupils aged fourteen to sixteen.
The recent reductions in academic content allow teachers more freedom to choose
what they think is most appropriate to teach pupils in their schools. There is no
formal requirement to select or use specific teaching materials, books or resources
and teachers are free to organise their teaching as they wish. Usually teams of
teachers work together to co-ordinate the science teaching for children in the school.

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Key Stage 3
Rather than specify academic content, the curriculum [6] is now organised around
the key concepts and principles shown in table 1, with the overall aim of enhancing
scientific literacy. The content relating to chemistry states that children should
learn:
– “the particle model provides explanations for the different physical properties
and behaviour of matter
– elements consist of atoms that combine together in chemical reactions to form
compounds
– elements and compounds show characteristic chemical properties and patterns in
their behaviour” [7]

Table 1: Key Stage 3 Science National Curriculum: general organising themes

and concepts [6]

Key concepts: How Key processes Science learning opportunities

Science Works

• Use scientific ideas • use a range of • research, experiment, discuss and

and models to explain scientific methods develop arguments
phenomena and and techniques to • pursue an independent enquiry
develop them develop and test into an aspect of science of
creatively to generate ideas and personal interest
and test theories explanations • use real-life examples as a basis
• Critically analyse and • assess risk and work for finding out about science
evaluate evidence safely in the • study science in local, national and
from observations laboratory, field and global contexts, and appreciate
and experiments workplace the connections between these
• Explore how the • plan and carry out • experience science outside the
creative application of practical and school environment, including in
scientific ideas can investigative the workplace, where possible
bring about activities, both
• use creativity and innovation in
technological individually and in
science, and appreciate their
developments and groups
importance in enterprise
consequent changes • obtain, record and
in the way people • recognise the importance of
analyse data from
think and behave sustainability in scientific and
primary and
technological developments
• Examine the ethical secondary sources,
and moral including ICT • explore contemporary and
implications of using sources, and use historical scientific developments
and applying science findings to provide and how they have been
evidence for scientific communicated
• Recognise that
modern science has explanations • prepare to specialise in a range of
its roots in many • evaluate scientific science subjects at key stage 4
different societies and evidence and working and consider career opportunities
cultures, and draws methods both within science and in other
on a variety of valid areas that are provided by science
• use appropriate
approaches to qualifications
methods, including
scientific practice ICT, to communicate • consider how knowledge and
• Share developments scientific information understanding of science informs

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and common and contribute to personal and collective decisions,

understanding across presentations and including those on substance
disciplines and discussions about abuse and sexual health
boundaries scientific issues • make links between science and
other subjects and areas of the
curriculum

Pupils will study science for approximately three hours each week. Common prac-
tice is to utilize a unit-based structure so pupils may experience the full range of
sciences across the year. Some schools may divide science lessons formally into
chemistry, physics and biology, but this relatively rare in state-funded secondary
schools.

Key Stage 4: GCSE examination

GCSE courses are taught over two years to pupils aged fourteen to sixteen. Most
pupils receive around five hours of science tuition each week. The most recent
revision of the KS 4 Science National Curriculum took place in 2004. Table 2 lists
the expected general content – compared to previous versions of the National
Curriculum, these statements provide only brief requirements. Subject specific
statements for chemistry are that pupils learn:
– chemical change takes place by the rearrangement of atoms in substances
– there are patterns in the chemical reactions between substances
– new materials are made from natural resources by chemical reactions
– the properties of a material determine its uses

Table 2: The content of scientific enquiry: How Science Works section of the
Key Stage 4 National Curriculum in England and Wales, 2006 [6]
Scientific enquiry: How Science Works
Data, evidence, Applications and
Practical and Communication
theories and implications of
enquiry skills skills
explanations science
Pupils should be Pupils should be Pupils should be Pupils should be
taught: taught to: taught to: taught:
• how scientific • plan to test a • recall, analyse, • about the use of
data can be scientific idea, interpret, apply contemporary
collected and answer a and question scientific and
analysed scientific scientific technological
• how question, or solve information or developments and
interpretation of a scientific ideas their benefits,
data, using problem • use both drawbacks and
creative thought, • collect data from qualitative and risks
provides evidence primary or quantitative • to consider how
to test ideas and secondary approaches and why decisions
develop theories sources, including • present about science and
• how explanations using ICT sources information, technology are
of many and tools develop an made, including
phenomena can argument and those that raise

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be developed • work accurately draw a ethical issues, and

using scientific and safely, conclusion, using about the social,
theories, models individually and scientific, economic and
and ideas with others, when technical and environmental
• that there are collecting first- mathematical effects of such
some questions hand data language, decisions
that science • evaluate methods conventions and • how uncertainties
cannot currently of collection of symbols and ICT in scientific
answer, and some data and consider tools knowledge and
that science their validity and scientific ideas
cannot address reliability as change over time
evidence and about the role
of the scientific
community in
validating these
changes

Assessment of pupils’ learning at KS4 is by public examination, the GCSE. All

pupils must take science as a GCSE subject. Although some will take only one
GCSE in science (“GCSE Science”), many pupils study science for about 20% of
their time in school, taking two GCSEs (Science and Additional Science) of which
chemistry is a part. Some pupils, usually the most academic in any school, take
three separate GCSEs in science, (a “Triple Award”), one each in Chemistry,
Physics and Biology. Teachers choose the GCSE course they think is most
appropriate for their pupils. Commonly, courses adopt a unit-based structure.
Although all current GCSE science qualifications must include How Science
Works and emphasise scientific literacy, the approach taken can vary. Tables 3 and
4 contrast a “traditional” with a context-based GCSE Chemistry course. These
teach the same content, but adopt different strategies. The traditional course [7]
(Table 3) comprises three units, presenting knowledge in a factual way, with
scientific literacy and How Science Works mainly being added as additional
information. A pupil needs to complete all three units successfully to gain the
qualification.

Table 3: Content overview of a traditional-style GCSE Chemistry course [8]

Course Unit 1

Patterns in Making There’s one Designer Pro-

Properties Changes Earth ducts

Periodic Table – Neutralisation Global warming Modern materials

groups and peri- reactions of dilute Hydrocarbons – e.g. Lycra,
ods hydrochloric and Fossil fuels Thinsulate
Flame tests sulphuric acids Crude oil distil- Smart materials
Colours and iden- with oxides, car- lation New materials
GCSE tification of tran- bonates and hy-
Recycling mate-
Science sition metal com- droxides
rials
pounds Salt preparation

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GCSE Properties of Metal extraction Sustainable Structure and

Chemistry elements – e.g. Oxidation reac- development properties related
chlorine, iodine, tions Biofuels to use of materi-
helium, iron, gold Order of reactiv- Combustion als
Rates of reaction ity of metals Compounds and
Variations in re- Hydration, dehy- elements from
activity dration, thermal sea water
Introduction to decomposition
exothermic and Gas tests, gas
endothermic re- preparation and
actions collection
Using analytical Uses of common
data to identify compounds
elements/
compounds

Unit 2

In Your Ele- Chemical How Fast? How

Synthesis
ment Structures Furious?

Cracking paraffin Physical proper- The importance Exothermic and

Structure of al- ties and struc- of chance in endothermic re-
kanes and al- tures of metals scientific dis- actions
kenes Sub-atomic parti- coveries, e.g. Bond breaking is
Properties of cles – charges Buckminster- endothermic and
alkanes and al- and mass values fullerene bond making is
GCSE
kenes, bromine Atomic structure Uses of fullere- exothermic
Science
water to test for Electronic con- nes and nano- The effects of
unsaturation figurations of the tubes changing tem-
GCSE
Polymers – for- first 20 elements Relationships perature, concen-
Chemistry between bond- tration and sur-
mation, types, Ionic and cova-
properties, prop- lent bonding ing, properties face area on a
erties related to and structure of reaction rate
Properties and
use a range of sub- The effects of a
structures of ionic
Calculation of stances, e.g. catalyst on a
and covalent
relative formula diamond, reaction rate
compounds
mass, theoretical graphite, halo- Introduction to
and percentage gens collision theory
yields Haber process –
Predicting out- concept of re-
comes of synthe- versible chemical
sis reactions reactions

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Unit 3

Chemical Chemistry
Detection Working for Us

Identification of Properties and

substances, purity uses of transition
GCSE testing metals
Chemistry Qualitative and Chemical and
quantitative analy- physical proper-
sis ties of alcohols,
“Wet” tests for a carboxylic acids
range of ions and esters, and
Mole calculations their uses

Avogadro’s Law Electrolysis

Acid-base titrations Alkali metals,

their compounds
Calculations of
and uses
moles of gas
Manufacture and
uses of sulphuric
acid
Manufacture of
soaps and deter-
gents

The context-based course 21st Century Science (Table 4), offers an innovative
approach, packaging the same content as the traditional course into seven units [9,
10]. The first three adopt a scientific literacy stance, setting out knowledge under
the headings “issues for citizens” and “questions science could answer”. The next
three units pose questions for chemists, while the seventh unit completes the GCSE
with more advanced material. Note that practical work is also expected – 10% of
the traditional GCSE marks are awarded for practical skills assessed by the teacher,
while 33.3% of the context-based course marks are awarded for a teacher-assessed
practical investigation.
Teachers are free to choose the course they think is most appropriate for their
school environment. Some teachers prefer traditional-style courses, perhaps
because these offer greater familiarity with their own experiences as learners and/or
are regarded as providing pupils with more in-depth chemical knowledge. Other
teachers choose a context-based course because they think this makes chemistry
more relevant to their pupils, thus enhancing motivation to study. Single subject
chemistry GCSE was taken by about 77 000 pupils in England and Wales in 2008,
compared to about 85 000 taking biology and 77 000 taking GCSE physics.

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Table 4: Content overview of 21st Century Science GCSE Chemistry [11]

Course Unit title

Questions science may help

Issues for citizens
to answer
How do I make sense of What chemicals make up air, and
data about air pollution? which ones are pollutants?
Where do pollutants come What chemical reactions produce
Air from? air pollutants?
Quality Is air pollution harmful to What happens to these pollut-
me? ants in the atmosphere?
How can we improve air What choices can we make to
quality? improve air quality?
How can we pick a suitable What different properties do
material for a product or different materials have?
task? Why is crude oil important as a
GCSE When buying a product what source of fibres and plastics?
Science Material else should we consider Why does it help to know about
Choices besides cost and how well it the molecular structure of fibres
GCSE does its job? and plastics?
Chemistry How should we manage the
wastes that arise from our use of
materials?
Is organic food better for What is the difference between
us? intensive and organic farming?
What are food additives and Why are chemicals deliberately
why are they used? added to food?
Food
Are food additives safe to How can we ensure our food
matters
eat? does not contain chemicals that
Why can it be harmful to eat may harm our health?
too much sugary food? Why does what we eat affect our
health?
Content overview
What are the patterns in the properties of the elements?
How do chemists explain the patterns in the properties of the
Chemical
elements?
Patterns
GCSE How do chemists explain the patterns in the properties of com-
Additional pounds of group 1 and group 7 elements?
Science Chemi- What types of chemicals make up the atmosphere and hydro-
cals of sphere?
GCSE the natu- What type of chemicals make up the Earth’s lithosphere?
Chemistry ral envi- Which chemicals make up the biosphere?
ronment How can we extract useful materials from minerals?
Chemical Chemicals and why we need them
synthesis Planning, carrying out and controlling chemical synthesis
Alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters
Energy changes in chemistry
Further
GCSE Reversible reactions and equilibria
chemistry
Chemistry Analysis
Green chemistry

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Post-16 chemistry
Post-16 chemistry courses are of one or two years’ duration. Pupils can take an
Advanced Subsidiary General Certificate of Education (AS GCE) course in
chemistry in one year as a complete qualification. A second year of study, known
colloquially as “A2” (Advanced 2) can be added if they wish to pursue chemistry
further. The AS and A2 years comprise the “Advanced GCE”, known colloquially
as “A level”. Common practice among teachers is to expect pupils taking AS
courses to have achieved a good standard in their Science or Chemistry GCSE
examinations. Those progressing to A2 will normally have achieved or expect to
achieve a pass standard in their AS course units. The knowledge and understanding
required at A2 builds on that of AS, so pupils cannot take an A2 course without
having first completed an AS course.
There is no formal post-16 National Curriculum dictating content, but all
courses must meet the same minimum requirements and be validated by the QCDA.
Traditional [12] and context-based courses are available. All courses require pupils
to study three units, one of which involves assessment of practical skills. Courses
also have to include How Science Works.
As at GCSE, teachers can choose which course best suits their pupils and
expertise. Traditional courses are favoured by those who like to teach chemistry as
a logical progression through chemical ideas in a fixed sequence. A context-based
approach such as Salters Advanced Chemistry [13] is believed to offer greater
relevance to pupils, promoting motivation. This method also permits pupils to re-
visit chemical ideas as they are taught within certain contexts, rather than, for
example, teaching all aspects of chemical bonding in one unit. Those preferring a
context-based approach consider this enables pupils to build knowledge securely
over a longer period than is possible in a traditional-style course.
In 2008, about 42 000 pupils completed A levels in chemistry. By comparison,
around 56 000 pupils took A level biology and 28 000 A level physics. Generally,
achieving a good grade in A level chemistry is regarded as very worthwhile and is
a pre-requisite for studying a range of vocational sciences such as medicine,
dentistry, veterinary science, pharmacy and dietetics.

Current Issues in School Chemistry

Ensuring the availability of science teachers with high quality specialist chemical
knowledge in state schools is regarded as an important issue. Anecdotally, about
55% of graduates entering teacher education courses to teach science are biologists
by background, while about 25% have chemistry or chemistry-related degrees, such
as biochemistry. This has persisted for a number of years, creating an imbalance in
expertise in secondary schools, such that some have only one or no teacher with the
academic background thought to be necessary to teach A level chemistry. Thus,
chemistry is regarded by the UK government as a “shortage” subject, that is, there

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are too few teachers with expertise in this area. To help attract chemists into
teaching, at the time of writing the government pays a bursary of up to £5 000 to
graduates who complete teacher education and one year of science teaching in a
state-funded secondary school. There is discussion as to whether or not this
initiative is successful in meeting its aims, as initial teacher education competes
with higher status options for high quality graduate chemists and the proportion of
pre-service science teachers who are chemists has remained at the same level now
for around ten years.
Equality of access to triple award GCSE and post-16 chemistry courses is also
discussed. The perceived lack of specialist chemistry teachers is associated with
secondary schools being unable to offer single subject chemistry GCSE and A level
courses, but other factors such as funding, facilities and pupil participation are also
important. For example, data indicate that pupils in LAs with higher than average
degrees of poverty tend to provide poorer access to single science subjects at GCSE
[14]. However, the government claims further investments are being made to widen
access – for example, science teachers are supported if they wish to develop
chemistry expertise by attending additional training courses. Significantly, pupils
from England performed very well in the most recent Trends in Mathematics and
Science Survey [15], suggesting that by international comparison science knowl-
edge levels of ten- and fourteen-year-olds are high. Although these pupils are
younger than those taking GCSE, reliance on single subjects at GCSE as a
“marker” for high quality standard science education is argued on this basis to be
unfounded, and that achieving two science GCSEs at a high level is regarded as
providing sufficient background knowledge for post-16 study.
Encouraging post-16 participation in chemistry has also been much discussed in
the UK in recent years. Post-16 education has expanded in the last fifteen years,
both in the numbers of pupils participating and in the range of courses made
available. Sciences are regarded as “difficult” [16] and uncompromising in that
they require learning of complex material with few opportunities to express
personal opinion. Hence considerable efforts are made by science teachers to
enhance post-16 participation using a wide range of initiatives such as science
clubs, participation in “Chemistry Week” organized by the Royal Society of
Chemistry and chemistry competitions. Chemistry-related careers are also strongly
promoted.

University Chemistry in the UK

Single-subject chemistry degrees are available at forty-nine universities in the UK
at the time of writing (source: Universities and Colleges Admissions Service,
UCAS [17]). The standard qualification is a three-year “Bachelor of Science” (BSc)
honours degree and, for those who wish to undertake advanced studies, an extra
fourth year of research leading to a “Masters in Chemistry” (MChem) degree.

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There are many variants – for example, nineteen universities offer a four-year
MChem which includes a year studying abroad, while a large number permit
chemistry to be studied with a range of other subjects including business, law,
music and languages. Students can also spend their fourth year carrying out
research in an industry placement. Studying one area of chemistry, such as polymer
chemistry, analytical, industrial, medicinal, colour, food, environmental or
materials, leading to a more specialized degree, is also a possibility. Universities
offering such courses tend to have strong research traditions in these specialist
areas. In total, about 12 500 undergraduate students were studying chemistry at UK
universities in 2007/8 [18].
Across the UK, the university academic year begins in October and ends in June,
usually divided into three ten-week units referred to as “terms”. All Chemistry
degrees teach similar content, normally organized in modules covering physical,
organic and inorganic aspects. At my present university, six modules are studied in
each year. Typically, a chemistry module comprises twenty one hour lectures,
twenty practical experiments each of three hours, and additional workshops and
tutorials. Students are expected to read extensively in their own time. Most
modules are examined by formal written examinations held in May each year.
Some oral examinations are used to examine students’ knowledge of practical and
data analysis skills, and some coursework is assessed. Students’ examination
results are graded each year, leading to different levels of “Honours” being
awarded for the complete degree – a “First Class” degree is the highest standard,
awarded to students achieving 70% or higher in most of their assessments;
followed by “Upper Second Class” (corresponding to scores of 60-69%), “Lower
Second Class” (approximately 50–59%) and the lowest level of honours, “Third
Class”. Students whose work does not meet Third Class standard may be awarded a
Pass degree.

Concluding Comments
Overall, chemistry, along with science in general, is a highly respected subject in
the UK, receiving extensive, mainly positive, attention from the media. Chemistry
graduates are regarded as very employable, with most gaining jobs in chemistry or
other related scientific fields. The chemical industry and the Royal Society of
Chemistry [19] throughout the UK work hard with schools and universities to
promote chemistry as a subject to help ensure the future supply of chemists they
perceive is needed to maintain good industrial and professional research output.
At school, although chemistry tends to have reputation as a “difficult” subject, it
remains a popular choice, particularly for academically oriented pupils. How best
to widen access and encourage a broad range of pupils to study chemistry in school
post-16 is frequently discussed – a new Science Diploma qualification [20] offers

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an “applied” science route focusing on how science is used in the workplace that is
likely to attract new pupils to the subject.
Working as a chemistry teacher remains a satisfying and interesting profession.
Although many changes have occurred to the science curriculum over the last
twenty years, developing new ways of teaching and deciding how best to use the
wide range of resources available for presenting chemistry topics to meet pupils’
learning needs is an ongoing challenge that requires ingenuity and creativity to
solve. Encouraging pupils to pursue chemistry as a subject and to achieve high
standards in public examinations is valued and respected by many.

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