MEG 302.

2 Coursework

Lecture Note
AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Course Outline
 Introduction
 Modes of Operation of an Axial Flow Turbine
 Fluid dynamics Analysis of Axial-Flow Turbines
 Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics Analyses
 Velocity Analysis
 Overall and Stage Efficiencies in an Axial-Flow Turbine
 Stage Efficiency
 Degree of Reaction
 Stresses in turbine rotor blades
 Examples
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Introduction
When a fluid flows in an axis parallel to the axis of the turbo machine; the turbo machine is called an axial-flow turbo
machine. If the turbo machine is intended to produce external work, then we can refer to it as a turbine. An axial-flow
turbine is therefore a work producing turbo machine with fluid flowing parallel to the axis of the machine. A typical
example of an axial-flow turbine is the gas turbine engine, which is employed in power generation in most industrial
areas where there is availability of fossil fuels.
• It employs stages of rows of blades to produce the required power.
• Each stage of row of blades consists of a stator and a rotor.
• The stator is the non-rotating member, with blades usually rigidly fixed around the circumference of the annulus of
the casing of the machine.
• The rotor however, is the rotating member, with blades attached to the hub/rotor drum.
• The stators and rotors blades are arranged such that, the space between the blades form the shape of a nozzle.
This arrangement results to a drop in pressure accompanied by an increase in flow velocity as is expected in a
nozzle.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Modes of Operation of an Axial Flow Turbine
High pressure fluid is admitted into the stator at point 1, as
shown in Fig. 2.4. Some of the pressure of the fluid is converted
to kinetic energy, as it flows through the nozzle shaped stator,
resulting to high velocity fluid leaving the stator at point 2. The
high velocity fluid enters the rotor at point 2, striking the blades
of the rotor at an angle. As the fluid is flowing in between the
rotor blades, with the space in between them shaped like a
nozzle, there is a further drop in the fluid pressure. Finally the
fluid having transferred a tangential force on the rotor will leave
at point 3. The tangential component of the flow velocity at entry
and exit of the rotor blades will induce a turning moment or
torque on the rotor, forcing it to rotate. This turning moment
(torque) induced will in turn produce the required power which
can be tapped for generation of electricity, driving an automobile
etc. Usually the axial flow turbine has several stages of rows of
blades; the reason being that, the enthalpy drop in each stage
is small.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Modes of Operation of an Axial Flow Turbine
Thus, in machines generating so much power, multiple stages of rows of blades will be required, giving rise to high
pressure ratios across the machine. This advantage of axial-flow turbines outscores it over reciprocating machines that
operate within very low compression ratios. It is also possible to have a single stage alone, like in fans where the
enthalpy drop required is small.
Fluid dynamics Analysis of Axial-Flow Turbines
In this section, we will be considering the application of Thermodynamic and Fluid mechanics principles, to deriving
basic mathematical relations that will be used to quantify the power generated by the turbine, the efficiency and the
degree of reaction. Velocity triangle concept will be used to represent and quantify the velocity components
associated with the flow field.
Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics Analyses
In analyzing the flow of fluid through an axial-flow turbine, the following assumptions will be made:
(a) The blade is a short blade, that is to say there is no variation in the velocity, along the blade. Therefore the
flow velocity at the mean radius will represent the flow all over the blade.
𝑟𝑟
(b) The ratio ≥ 0.8, thus we can apply meridional (2-D) flow analysis to the flow problem.
𝑟𝑡
(c) The flow is steady.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics Analyses
In analyzing the flow of fluid through an axial-flow turbine, the following assumptions will be made:
(d) Flow is symmetric about the circumference of the blade, implying that the flow pattern around the blade is
the same on both sides.
Using the basic principles derived in chapter one, by Principle of Conservation of Mass

The flow area for an axial-flow turbine has been derived as

where 𝑟𝑚 is the mean radius of the blade, b is the height of the blade.
Force on the fluid element has been given as
Applying Newton’s third law; action and reaction are equal and opposite, the tangential force on the blade will be

This force will produce a torque whose magnitude is given by

As a result of the angular speed of the blade, power will be generated with a magnitude of

But the blade speed, 𝑈𝐵 = 𝜔𝑟𝑚 , thus the power generated can further be reduced to,
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics Analyses
The power produced per unit mass flow that is, specific work is expressed as,
Equation (2.8) is the Euler’s equation for a turbine.
To carryout thermodynamic analysis of the flow through the stator and the rotor, we will apply equation (1.31) which
is the conservation of rothalpy from point 1 to 2 in any turbo machine.
For a stator, at entry of fluid (point 1) and exit of fluid (point 2), we have from the aforementioned equation

But the blade velocity in a stator, 𝑈𝐵2 = 𝑈𝐵1 = 0 hence,

This final expression implies that stagnation enthalpy is conserved in a stator, that is, stagnation enthalpy at entry and
exit from the stator, is the same. Rothalpy has reduced the rigors that would have been associated with using SFEE to
analyze this problem to a great extent. However, converged flow from the stator will enter the rotor at point 2 and
leave at point 3. We will apply SFEE to the rotor to have
The heat transferred into the rotor, 𝑄 = 0 and it is assumed to be on the same datum, therefore the potential energy
term can be neglected. Equation (2.11) will be reduced to,
This is the work produced by the axial-flow turbine.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Velocity Analysis
In this section, we will apply the concept of velocity triangle to analyze the flow into and out of the rotor.

Consider a fluid of absolute velocity, 𝑉2, entering the rotor at an angle,

𝛼2. The angle 𝛼2 is called the blade angle and is the angle the absolute
velocity subtends with the axis of rotation of the blade. Expectedly,
The fluid will flow along the blade with a relative velocity, 𝑉2𝑅 . The angle
𝛽2, which the relative velocity subtends with the axis of the blade is
called the air-blade angle. After acceleration within the rotor the fluid
Will leave the rotor blade at point 3,with an absolute velocity, 𝑉3 inclined at
an angle, 𝛼3. The relative velocity of the fluid at that point is 𝑉3𝑅 and
it is flowing at an angle, 𝛽3.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Velocity Analysis
At points 2 and 3, the velocity triangle will be

The two diagrams can be combined since blade speed, 𝑈𝐵 is common to them. Thus, the resulting combined velocity
triangle will be,
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Velocity Analysis
The tangential component of absolute velocity at points 2 and 3, are obtained from the velocity triangle as,

Force acting on the fluid element from equation (2.3) will become

However, the tangential force exerted on the blade by the fluid ,, is the opposite of what we have just derived.
Consequently,
Torque generated as a result of the tangential force is therefore
Power produced is obtained from the following expression,
But 𝑈𝐵 = 𝜔𝑟𝑚, thus power produced is therefore given as
The power produced per unit mass flow-rate is given as
The axial component of velocities, at points 2 and 3 are given by,

The axial force resulting from these velocities is given as

 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Velocity Analysis
NOTE: Bearings are usually introduced along the axis of the hub to take care of the axial movements, as a result of the
axial force produced. The bearings ensure that the rotor is maintained in its positions, ruling out any possibility of
movement of the rotor along the axis, thereby taking care of the axial forces. Thus, in most analysis of velocity
triangles the axial component of velocity at entry and exit is assumed to be equal.

CLASS WORK: show that relative stagnation enthalpy is conserved in a rotor row, from the velocity diagram

Equation (2.44) implies that relative stagnation enthalpy is conserved in the rotor, Mathematically,
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Overall and Stage Efficiencies in an Axial-Flow Turbine
The efficiency of an axial flow turbine cannot be estimated, without carefully considering losses associated with it.
Two major losses are however of utmost importance to us, namely
(1) Friction losses and
(2) Leakage losses
All these losses ensure that the power produced by the machine is always less than it would have produced, should
there be no losses. Thus, shaft power produced by the machine is the remainder after all the losses has been
accounted for. Consequently, it is pertinent that we account for these losses by measuring the efficiency of the
machine.
Efficiency can be considered at:
(1) The point of extraction of energy from the fluid with the rotor blades: we may be referring to adiabatic efficiency
of the machine, if the fluid is a compressible fluid or a hydraulic efficiency, if the fluid is incompressible.
(2) The point where all other losses have been accounted for: it can be referred to as overall efficiency.
NOTE: The leakage losses in most cases are negligible and so can be overlooked, implying that the adiabatic efficiency
is of equal magnitude with the overall efficiency. To obtain the adiabatic efficiency of an axial flow turbine, we will be
considering the flow of an idealized frictionless fluid (ideal fluid) through the machine. For such fluids, the expansion is
said to be an isentropic process (constant entropy and frictionless process).
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Overall and Stage Efficiencies in an Axial-Flow Turbine
To quantify the efficiency, we will look at the hs chart (De-mollier chart) for expansion of fluid through a single stage of an
axial flow turbine. We will represent the enthalpy drop from the point of admission of fluid into the stator to the exit point
from the rotor, for a single stage as depicted in Figure 2.8.

The efficiency of an axial flow turbine can be expressed as

However, from the diagram, actual work is given by

And the ideal work for an isentropic expansion process is

Thus,
In terms of static temperature drop, it can be given as

where ℎ3𝑠 and 𝑇3𝑠 are the ideal enthalpy and

temperature at exit from the rotor.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Stage Efficiency
Most axial flow turbines require many stages of expansion to extract energy from the fluid. These stages of expansion can
be represented on De-Mollier chart as shown in figure 2.9.
If we consider any single stage, the actual enthalpy drop is given
by ∆ℎ𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1: 𝑛, where n is the number of stages. The isentropic
enthalpy drop is given by ∆ℎ𝑖𝑠.
Then, the stage efficiency can be expressed as,

If we assume that the stage efficiency is the same for each stage,
then the total enthalpy drop in the entire stage is expressed in
the following equation.

A close look at the graph will reveal that the constant pressure
lines, diverges from left to right as entropy increases.
Consequently, sum of the enthalpy drop in all the stages of the
machine will be greater than enthalpy drop in the entire
machine, i.e,
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Stage Efficiency
This implies that, the overall efficiency of the turbine is always greater than the sum of the individual small stages
efficiencies.
This leads us to defining a term called the reheat factor, which expresses the ratio of overall stage efficiency to the
individual stage efficiencies. Mathematically,
Reheat factor is always greater than unity due to the divergence of pressure lines from left to right.

Degree of Reaction
The degree of reaction tries to measure, the extent to which the rotor contributes to the static enthalpy drop in the entire
stage. It is the ratio of the enthalpy drop in rotor, to the enthalpy drop in the stage.

But enthalpy drop in rotor from equation (2.45) is

Enthalpy drop in the stage is given by
The degree of reaction will as a result become
From the combined velocity triangle,
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Degree of Reaction
Thus,
Recall that 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝛽 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽 , the degree of reaction will further be reduced to

Finally,
For a degree of reaction of 50% that is
But from the velocity triangle, 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽3 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼3 , comparing with equation (2.66), we have

Also from the velocity triangle, 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽2 , comparing to equation (2.66), we have

This equality of angles implies that the blade is symmetrical about an axis, for a degree of reaction of 50%.The resulting
velocity triangle, is shown below and offers the best design for a turbine blade.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Degree of Reaction

If the degree of reaction is 0%, then enthalpy of fluid at inlet to the rotor, h2 will be equal to that at exit from the rotor, h3.
Also, the air blade angle at inlet will be equal to that at exit from the rotor. In addition, recall that for a rotor, relative
stagnation enthalpy is conserved. Hence, for 0% degree of reaction, the relative velocity of fluid at inlet is the same with
that at exit. Unlike in an impulse stage where there is no pressure drop in the rotor, here, there is considerable pressure
drop owing to the irreversibility accompanied with this process.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Stresses in turbine rotor blades
It is important to consider the stresses in rotor blades, as this is a vital factor that helps to determine the allowable blade
height and annulus flow area, particularly in high temperature and high stress situations. The stresses in turbine blades
arise from centrifugal loads, gas bending loads and from vibrational effects caused by non-constant gas loads. According to
Smith (1986) the vibrational stress is very significant and thought to be responsible for fairly common vibrating fatique
failures.
Consider a blade rotating about an axis 0 as shown in Figure 2.12. For an element of the blade of length dr at radius r,
rotating at an angular speed ω, the elemental centrifugal load developed on the blade is given as

where 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝐴𝑑𝑟, 𝐹𝑐 is the centripetal load acting on the blades. The negative sign in this expression accounts for the
fact that the stress is zero at the blade tip and maximum at the blade root. Substituting the expression for the mass of the
blades into that for centrifugal load, then we shall have,
For blades with constant cross-sectional area, we get

Equation (2.73) shows that the stress developed on the blades of a rotor depend on the nature of the material, the blade
speed as well as the blade height. As a matter of fact, the stress increases with increase in blade speed.
 AXIAL-FLOW TURBINE
Stresses in turbine rotor blades
The expression also suggests that the stress developed in the blade is greater in long blades. Care must be taken in
designing these blades so as to reduce the centrifugal stress developed.

Most rotor blades in use are tapered from root to tip such that
area ratio 𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑟 is between 1 3 and 1 4. For such blade taper,
it is often assumed that the blade stress is reduced to 2 3 of the
value obtained for an un-tapered blade.