Human Health and Disease GO Introduction > Early Greeks like Hippocrates as well as Indian Ayurveda system of medicine asserted that health is a state of body and mind where there was a balance of certain ‘humors’ Later on, biological discoveries stated that mind influences, through neural system and endocrine system, our imenume system which maintains our health > Good health is a state of optimum physical fitness, mental maturity and alertness with freedom from anxiety and social well being with freedom from social tensions. In order to achieve gooe health, it is necessary to have balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise. When people are healthy, they are more efficient at work. Health increases productivity and brings economac prosperity, Health also increases longevity of people. =f ) the World Health Day is celebrated every year on 7 April. When the functioning of one or more organs or systems ofthe body is adversely affectet, characterised by various signs and symptoms, we say that we are not healthy, Le, we have 2 disease, Health can be affected by : be 6 = Genetic disorders : Deficiencies with which @ from parents since birth. & Infections : Depending on infection, the body can be affected minimaly or seve Infecions are caused by viruses, bacteria and various kinds of erganisms These infections teat to condition jicken pox, pneumonia. 4 ell vay of Hess ie beavis otc Fave = ma oa health. These include Pa etaaed ae ‘obesity and malnutrit = i ir iz os po i an et So contracted after bit Sa on child is born and defects which the chile aniverttsmans 4 ruses, fungi, protazoans, helminths, ete, bacteria, therefore pathogens ag isms belonging 10 Most parasites are as Be aso iganisms are called pathooer™ y by various means, ‘multiply and) ase causing 0! Sea tal ie ng in (or on) them. The para can f ges hate 0 a « *! fun activities, resulting in morphological an hs Pane sunning 0 the a host. For example, the pathogens that en a the the various digestive enzymes. a.) There are two main modes of ‘© Direct transmission is W! without intermediate agents. | animal bites (rabies), etc Common Diseases in Hu disease transmission .d from an infected per he pathogens are transmitte R - hen ae be by direct physical contact (chicken pox), throtigh 2 bea, viral 5 transmitted from an infected pesOn 1 ed page re mi ngs me ‘ne costo, ae 22 sneezing, coughing, etc; ofal faecal Communicable Diseases ‘ : ee > Communicable diseases are caused by parasites or pathogens. Some of the diseasessagg bacterial pap ei helminthic and fungal diseases. Bacterial diseases (Typhoid isa contagious disease of intestine caused by bacterium Salmonella typi ‘The organisms of the dseaeaem in the stool and urine, therefore, carried by contaminated food and water. Bacterium enters via mouth isi and causes lesions in the intestinal walls. Incubation period of the bacterium is 1-3 weeks, Sustained igh ee to 40°C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of appetite are some of the common simi disease, Intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe cases. Typhoid fever could be confirmed by Midas Mary Mallon nicknamed Typhoid Mary was a classic case in medicine. She was a cook By profession aw typhoid carrier who continued to spread typhoid for several years through the food she prepateds {il) Pneumonia is caused by bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae whihinea (air filled sacs) of the lungs. As a resut ofthe infection, the alveoli get filled with fluid leading to sete ft respiration. The symptoms of pneumonia include fever, chils, cough and headache. In severe cases, the! nails may turn gfe to bluish in colour A healthy person acquires the infection by inhaling the dop by an infected person or even by sharing glasses and utensil with an infected person. "F_) PCV 13 vaccine provides immunity against pneumonia, Levofloxacin is popularly used to teat — Table : Some other important bacterial diseases se | Disease Pathogen Mode of transmission 10 |chotea iti abies + | ‘Vomiting, dehydration, water {2-3 ing, 7 (Amt Baits atracis re scular ramps Spores of bacteria spread by infected animals 1-7 days common eo YON ‘common cold difficulty in breathing, | Pulse, painful (pha | Coymabaleren der a tw Whooping leodetet fphieriae | Droplet infection 2-5 days inne prnest [a ama baa pertussisnh and D668 WR Yodke a : 247 vctmonin iat |p a1, SENN vein, ifampicn cough ain ches, | BC Helminths are animals that belong to the Phy Parasitic forms of this group, popularly know body and cause various diseases, ( ees 5 a ee fe by nematode Ascaris lumbrcoides, an endoparasite of sm includ internal bleeding, muscular pai, fe . _ ), fever, aner u Paras af exceed alongwith the faeces ofinfected engi bee ail Acquires this infection through contaminated water, vegetables, fruits, tee iylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) and Nema " @5 parasitic worms are endoparasites of gt * Sodsy Health and Disease ihe filarial worms ios ; which they ie tr ad banerott and W. mai i) * Be ss it years, us lay) caus esis fitarasis. The genital organ are aly the bmphaticvesalse hele te che doce cle seer 02 health etSOn though the bite of te ete eu Bees ars nonnree ons fe of the fe resulting in gross deformities The pathogens a¥e male mi ue fe ee iit pera Culex Humans are define host filarial some othe helminthic disease include taeniasis (cause Preventing mosquito bite. ale) and schist bby Hf ) uodenale) ar somal (aed by Scisceomm tasmanian Anoenone tobium), vo ni y diseases foal diseases are caused by fungi. The fur ; P scoses (caused by toxic inte fee diseases of man are either mycoses (caused by infection of fungi) pidermophyton are responsible for rn es), Many fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton Beem is generally mune Worm wiich is one ofthe mast common infectious diseases in man a re of dry, scaly lestons on pee! us by using towels, clothes or even the comb of infected individuals Ns sease These lesions are accompani las ‘of the body such as skin, nails and scalp are the main symptoms ; panied by intense itching, Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow, which hem thrive in skin folds st makes the n uch as those in the groin or between the toes. Drugs like griseofulvin and miconazole iit infection. fB immunity 5 Anong large number of infectious agents, exposure to only few result in disease due to the fact that the body is able tneferd isl irom most ofthese foreign agents. The overlay ofthe host to fiht the disease-causing organisms, tree bythe immune system is called immunity. Immunity is of two types: i) Innate immunity and (i) Acquired immunity. 1. \ + The study of body's defence mechanisms against pathogens is called immunology. Edward Jenner is known as Father of immunology. Innate Immunity > Innate immunity is non-specific type diferent types of barriers to the entry oft These are — {l) Physical barriers : Skin on our body ist of the epithelium lining the respiratory, 93 aur body {) Physiological barriers : Acid in the stomach, s2v2 in the mouth and tears from eyes prevent microbial growth, fi) Celluar barriers : Certain types of leucoertes (WBC) of ov body like polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNL- neutrophils), monocytes and natura killer Pe f iymphocies) inthe blood as well s macrophages ntisues can phagocyt robes. ; (iy Ae eae vested calls secrete proteins called interferons which protect non-infected cells from further viral infection. of defence, that is present atthe time of birth. Is accomplished by providing he foreign agents ito our body. Inate immunity consist of four types of bari. he main barter which prevents entry ofthe microorganisms. Mucus coating strointestnal and urogenital acs also help trapping microbes entering Kequired immunity > The immunity that an individual acquis aftet birth is called acquired oF adaptive or specific immunity. It is mediated nmunity that an indie id is characterised by memory. ; ‘SG ibodies or lymphocytes. It is pathogen specie an ee are two components of acquited IMMER tem : Aatibody mediated immune system (AMIS) tumoral immune sys body fis ie Dood plasma and lymph. \s of antibodies that circulate in @ cytes give rise to:a vated B-lymphocytes multiply rapidly, the acti = plasma cells (Effector B-cells): Some Of 4 into plasm xt cals. axed 8 cells donot iferentiate into plasma cls but a — Memory B-cells : Some of the act a renewed attack of the same antigen, memory B-cells until activated or a of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. it wit! ener une system or Tcell immunity (CMIS) |-mediated imm| i : ity or cell-med Ives the activation of phagocytes, antigen specific ji) Cellular immuni (ii) Cellular i es > Itdoes not involve antibodies but rather in release of various cytokines. > Various types of T-cells are {i) Cytotoxic or killer T-cells : Direct (i) Suppressor T-cells : Keep a check (iil) Helper T-cells : Stimulate the B-ce! {iv) Memory T-cells : Sensitised T-cells reta and differentiate into all types of T-cells. Antibodies > Antibodies are immunoglobulins (Igs) which Aatigenbinding ste are produced in response to antigenic \w msec and each antibody is a protein attack and destroy antigens by secreting a protein perg con entire immune system from attacking the Body's own eal is to produce antibodies. They form protein mediators calle in memory of antigen specificity for future, sometimes i Heavy molecule\ Antibodies are produced by ree Belymphocytes:T lymphocytes do not produce antibodies themselves but help B cells to produce them, Rs >» Each antibody molecule has four peptide hain) chains, two small light chains and two longer heavy chains. Hence, the antibody is represented as Hyl,. Different types of pomadl antibodies such as IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE, IgG are bonds produced in our body. IgG is the only antibody to cross placenta, Active and Passive Immunity > When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called active immunit full effective response. Injecting the microbes deliberately during into body during natural infection induce active immunity. » When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, i > The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days of lactati h {0 protect the infant is @ passive immunity. The fetus also receives some antibodies! placenta during pregnancy. Voccination and Immunisation Vaccine is a preparation/suspension or extract of dead/attenuated (injection) into a healthy person provides ‘temporary/per Of introduction of vaccine into an individual to provide Immunisation is the process by whit a 1y which the body administration of specific vaccines. osies HD] fF 251 .gerated response of the im Y 9990"es to which Such an immu ec eStem 10 certain antg x lune rest JENS present in the efvironment is called allergy. e of IgE type. Ponse is sons ate Of IGE type. Produced are called allergens. The antibodies produced to St, pollens, animal snd serotonin from the mast cells ne breathir gl dander, ec, Symptoms of alergic reactions include 9. Allergy occurs due to the release of chemicals like ai vem ne smptoms of allergy a | Use of drugs lke anti-istamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly | une Response | Heed irmunity iS characterised by memory. When ou uunters @ pathogen for the first time it protic vlonse called primary response which is of low Sulbsequent encounter With the same pathogen sa nihly intensified Secondary response whichis Seve to the fact that our body appears to have memory git fist encounter. Antibody ter (Acbitary units) utoimmunity J sutoimmunity refers to abnormal immune responses in nich the immune system fails to properly distinguish feueen self and non-self and attacks self body proteins. Fists Posen Wh cells act as antigens they are called antigen twantgen auteantigens, Some of the examples Oh atheimune) es ees?™tendl mses Sergey scat ta disorders are Grave's disease, Rheumatoid, arthritis, Nyasthenia gravis, Pernicious anaemia, ete Inmune System in Human Body cH > The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tis Ijmphoid organs . > These are the organs where origin and mature and proliferation of Iymphocytes occut. The primary lymphoid s are ‘ere immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. stone mv mu ee ete Ger ee * birth but keeps reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is attained, it reduces to a very small size, ‘e-marrow and thymus provide micro-envronments for the development Sista of Tymphogytes. patches of small iytestine andimnpiendinamiesseeneD UME I ool \ i ite to become effector cells. rath ager fh te ese ECON IS sapons a a hee The soleen is a large bean shaped organ, wien ma ir of erythrocytes. 10d by tray i isms, It also has a large reservolr rythrocytes: The bai ae ep at different ee Oe nodes serve 10 tap the microorganisms or other which ery atioh of lymphocytes present there and cause the Aavicens rapped in te lymph nodes af tthe major voc respaton, digestive and urogenital Minune response, Lymphoid tissUe TOT rT) constitutes about 50 percent of ‘cis called mucosal ass abit “seed acy DOA M human body, J cuaae ait 2 sues, cells and soluble molecules like antibodies. are substances ‘eins but some are a A vntigens that are 1GnT fe ) Aten Preset presenting antigens, € of immune cells Cells (APCS) ate TO ic calls and B cells g, macrophages, end Organ Transplantation aes > Tiansplantation involves te removal of a My by sim tisuesorgans from a donor Ts Oe any grattvansplant, Sometimes, the immune Sy foreign. Therefore, patient has to take immunosuy > The success of tissue and organ transplantatio (HLA) encoded by the HLA genes. The genes complex (MHC), located on the s! There are four types of transplantations +i ‘Autograft: It is grafting of one’s own transplantation. = Isograft: is transplantation from 2 twin by Immunodeficiency Diseases > Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive due to gene mutations, infections, malnutrition or accident. > A person suffering from an immunodeficiency disease is liable to suffer from diseases which normally would not occur (opportunistic diseases). SCID and AIDS are two common immunodeficiency diseases. EX alps >» The infection by Human. Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) causes AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). >» AIDS is a disorder of cell-mediated immune system of the body. There is a reduction in the number of helper T-cells, which stimulate antibody production by B-cells, This results in the loss of natural defence against infection: > The incubation Period of AIDS ranges between 6 months to 10 years. > Infection by HIV :Vius enters the body of a person and reaches to the macrophages (cell of imenne system). The viral RNA is converted to viral DNA with the help of reverse trancritase enzyme, Viel DNa incorporated into the host cells DNA. The val ENS replicates along with infected host cell th, ey infected macrophages act as ted which are released from the infected > Since, the number of helperT lymphoq especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fy heshe is unable to protect himselt/ jured tis b ching and blood group matching are mm may reject the transplanted organ by ‘essants (drugs) to prevent organ rejection n depends on the donor's and recipient's for the HLA proteins are clustered in the hort arm of chromosome 6 tissue to another part of the body, e.g., skin graft -other or sister, Le., donor and recipient are Allorat: is transplantation between individuals of same species, but with different — — Xenograft :Itis transplantation between animals of different species, ytes decrease in the body, Ingi and even parasites like Toxo lerself against these infections, that mediate the cellular ues or organs from the body of ap 3 © Cancer is a cell growt Vial RA core ’ @ a em Val protein ; Normal Thecommon approaches n a suitable combination) (used either singly or in @ suitad iy, raking proper care of the normal tis diated lethally cells ave na > In radiotherapy, tumor cel «cells. Majority of drugs have drugs are used 10 kil cancerous Js. Majority of drug > Several chemotherapeutic dtu oy truction by immune system. There oid detection ani ee Oe ee on oon uch as aeinterferon which activate their jt substances called biological response in destroying the tu — BB Drugs and Alcohol Abuse « opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloi rate obtained fom fun Two categories of rigid 4 or > The drugs, which are commonly abused obtained from flowering plants. Some of th me a Psychotropic Drugs a ‘ = > These ae the mood altering drugs thot affect behaviour and mental actiity ofa person Thesis . Seta {)Tranquilisers ~ They decrease tension and anxiety and produce a feeling of calmness withodt e jaregl aise bloos sleep. These are of two types : phenothiazines (major tiansquilisers) and benzodiazepines| eg, chloropromaz and valium respectively. 5 ae (il) Sedatives and hypnotics - Sedative reduces excitement, pain and lowers the physiological a Smoking | leading to drowsiness 0: sleep. Hypnotic induces sleep. Sedative and hypnotics inchs I icentra benzodiazepines si Addiction (il) OpioidsiNarcotics - Opioids are the drugs, receptors present in our central ne sich bind to specific opioid pp ssccte tem and gastrointestinal tract. They very effective sedative and painkiller analgesic) and its very useful in patients who have undergone surgery. Heroin {diacetyl-morphine), commonly called smack or ‘odourless bitter crystalline compound. Its a dey functions. This is obtained by acen latex of opium or poppy plant, ‘and injection. (y) Stimulants = These drugs stimul: excitement. The principle stimulants ar > Caffeine is a white crystalline bitter alkal (Cottea arabica). tis 1, 3,7 Timethyixany are analgesic (pain killer). Morphine brown sugar which is a white, pressant that slows down body Yiation of morphine, which is extracted from the Papaver somniterum. Generally taken by snorting the nervous system, make a person more He caffeine, cocaine, etc oid obtained from leaves of tea plant ine and it stimulates CNS,ir elie Drugs ae 5 songe one’s behaviour, tho : thoughts, feelin, cp iysergic acid diethylamide) ; 19 and altered 18" Claviceps purpurea) that Fy me 2 crystalline amidated Pann ee comes a "Jlaevon, conc oe paast OR ea ite obtained from dried fruiting body of ergot val and (etal Aon sis and severe ile age fe It causes horrible dreams, emotional ‘ ‘nervous system. ft also brings about prscaline 118 2 WRITE Powder alkaloid, abt i pnootora willamsil. 11s 2 }OW potency hallucin ined from the tops (called mescals) of a small spineless cactus. }ogen, psilocybin: It's obtained from the futing bodies of ie 1mm Psilocybe mexicana and its "bara rf effects are similar to those oH cannabinoids : These are a group of chemicals obtained from ~ plant, which interact with cannabinoid receptors present sally in the brain, The flower tops, leaves and the resin of Cannabis plant are used in various combinations to produce | hang, marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja, These are yoially taken by inhalation and oral ingestion and effect on FB Stele stuce of cannabis caidiovascular system of the body, cael Auicion and Dependence can inherent addictive nature. cng aso leads the way to drugs. Tobacco containing nicotine and an alkaloid has been smoked, chewed or used js sul! Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and non-adrenalin into blood circulation, which fai oressure and increase heart rate. Snokng inceases the incidences of cancers, emphysema, bronchitis, etc. Chewing tobacco also increases the chances ef cancers of oral cavity suses oxygen deficiency in the body, as it increases carbon monoxide content in blood and reduces of haembound oxygen. Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects — such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-being drugs and alcohol. These drive people to take them even when these are not needed, or even when mos selt- destructive, With the repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors present in body 4d only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol leading to greater intake and cohol pl the user into 2 vicious cirde leading to their regular use i inceases. Consequently the receptors respon auction, The addictive potential of drugs and al eb ich he/she may not be able to get out. : ; Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome ‘ mans a. tis characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and i icgular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly i Dreting, which nie + seved hedge eau oon sone C=" withdrawal symptoms can be severe 2d oven life threatening and the person may need medical supervision. Hecis of Drug/Alcohol Abuse E The ans he ioe us. manifested in the form of reckless behaviour, vandalism and alcohol abuse oh due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral may lead to coma and I. ol abuse rong yout ince rp in academic performance common warning siti on an et onal yin, whoa lan, depres, age, ‘ absence from schoolicallege, ng tionships wih fay and ends loss of interest in hobbies, vid rebellious behawiout in weight, appetite, e- \eeping and ating habits acta co. Excessive doses of drugs"i 7 Objective Nice & A ause of mental and financial distress to hisfher e c ij At times, a drug/alcohol addict becomes es ne Hel t0 cls S04 infections ike ag a E y are HD ly the) \d liver (cirthosi if drugs are taken intravenous! Js system and liver (cirhosis), r The Fae use of drugs and alcohol SES ae ad The “esha z known to adversely @! ‘ during pregnancy is also ¢ anabolic steroids in females include masculinisation (features like 1 The side-effects of the use of a | menstrual cycles, excessive hair growth s of Allergy resiveness, mood swings depression, abnow™® ludes acne, incr one fy eS > abrormal immune t sslorgement ofcitoris, deepening of voice. In males drug abuse inc nese aaeienag AMR Nee ri reaions at ae duction of size of the testicles, decreased sperm production, potential for kidney aad lg ales pediated (TyPe 1 eg ee premature baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland and these effects may sensitivity 1s classified as Ty see i 3 ‘b | (IgE Mediate prolonged use. Type | (IgE This allergic reaction is mani Prevention and Control i se ac | ly useful for prevention and cont Some of the measures mentioned here would be particularly pI rol of alcoho x exoore walang among adolescents : 4 processes antigen and presents it (i) Avoid undue peer pressure - Every child has his/her own choice and personality, which should be reyes ‘smaller peptides and presented nurtured. A child should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond his/her threshold limits Beit sus with MHC class II molecules. other activities. Tea (i) Education and counselling - Educating and counselling him/her to face problems and stessai { disappointments and failures as a part of life would also be worth while to channelise the child! pursuits like sports, reading, music, yoga and other extracurricular activities, 3 (i) Seeking help from parents and peers - Help from parents and peers should be: sought imme can guide appropriately. This would help young to share their feelings of anxiety and gui (iv) Looking for danger signs - Alert parents and teachers need to look for and identify above, Even friends, if they find someone using drugs or alcohol, should not hesitate te Parents or teacher in the best interests of the Person concerned. q Seeking professional and medical help - A lot of help is available in the form of hig le ises small peptides jatris i A Molecule . Psychiatrists and de-addiction and rehabilitation programmes to help affected ind iors ee i Antigen, presenting (v)