LECTURE 4.
VECTOR-
TENSOR ANALYSIS PART 2
Transport Phenomena
CHEB417-01
2024 Spring Semester / MW 11:00 ~ 12:15
Outline
• What is a tensor? (quick summary of last lecture)
• Index notation
What is a tensor?
• Tensor: A thing that is independent of the coordinate system (scalar,
vector, second order tensor, etc.)
• When we change the coordinate system, the vector itself does not
change. The things that change are the components.
• Why tensor?
• Since the natural laws must be independent of the coordinate systems, all natural
laws can be described by using the tensors.
Need for a more efficient notation
• In fluid mechanics and other areas, we frequently need to prove vector
identities such as,
1
𝐮𝐮 × 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮 = 𝛁𝛁 𝐮𝐮 � 𝐮𝐮 − 𝐮𝐮 � 𝛁𝛁𝛁𝛁
2
𝛁𝛁 𝟐𝟐 𝐮𝐮 = 𝛁𝛁 𝛁𝛁 � 𝐮𝐮 − 𝛁𝛁 × (𝛁𝛁 × 𝐮𝐮)
𝛁𝛁 � 𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮 � 𝛁𝛁𝛁𝛁 + 𝐮𝐮 𝛁𝛁 � 𝐮𝐮
e.g.) Velocity (v) : a quantity having both magnitude and direction (a vector)
A symbol in boldface type: “vector” = Gibbs notation
• However, if we want to prove some vector identities in a conventional
way, it is too cumbersome and complicated.
• One very efficient way is to use the index notation which we now want
to study.
Index notation
• Index notation concept
• Summation convention (Einstein convention)
• Preliminary notions
• Vector operations with index notation
Index notation concept
• The vector identity should hold in all coordinate systems
→ It is sufficient to prove the identities in the simplest coordinate system
(Cartesian coordinate system)
• In the Cartesian coordinate system, the unit vectors are denoted by,
𝐞𝐞𝑥𝑥 , 𝐞𝐞𝑦𝑦 , 𝐞𝐞𝑧𝑧
A vector 𝐯𝐯 is represented by,
𝐯𝐯 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝐞𝐞𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝐞𝐞𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝐞𝐞𝑧𝑧
,where 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 , 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 , 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 are the components of 𝐯𝐯
• In order to denote the vectors more conveniently, we use the indices 1,2,3
instead of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 and we define,
𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 → 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 form of components
𝐞𝐞𝑥𝑥 , 𝐞𝐞𝑦𝑦 , 𝐞𝐞𝑧𝑧 → 𝐞𝐞1 , 𝐞𝐞2 , 𝐞𝐞3 form of unit vectors
• Then, vector 𝐯𝐯 is represented by,
𝐯𝐯 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝐞𝐞𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝐞𝐞𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝐞𝐞𝑧𝑧
= 𝑣𝑣1 𝐞𝐞1 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝐞𝐞2 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝐞𝐞3
3 3 3
= � 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1 𝑘𝑘=1
• The index 𝑖𝑖, is called the dummy index (used only for the process of
summation and does not have special meaning)
• Thus other dummy indices such as 𝑗𝑗 or 𝑘𝑘 may be freely used (as shown above)
Summation convention (Einstein convention)
• Einstein struggled with very complicated formulae in his work for the
general relativity and felt very strongly the need for simple expressions
→ Thus he proposed the omission of ∑ symbol
3
𝐯𝐯 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 → 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
𝐚𝐚 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 → 𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗=1
� 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 → 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1
3 3
� � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 → 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
• If a dummy index appears twice in a term we should interpret the
expression with the summation symbol even though the summation
symbol does not appear explicitly
3
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 → � 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
3
𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 → � 𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1
Some indices appear only once and to those
3 indices, summation does not apply
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘 → � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑘
→ These indices are called, free indices and they
𝑘𝑘=1
have specific numbers from 1,2,3
3
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 → � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
3
𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 → � 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑗𝑗=1
3 3
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 → � � 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑗𝑗=1 𝑘𝑘=1
Preliminary notions
• The most frequently used symbols in index notation for vector operations
are 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 , of which the properties are as following:
(1) 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : Kronecker delta
1, if 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗
𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
0, if 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗
𝛿𝛿11 = 𝛿𝛿22 = 𝛿𝛿33 = 1 𝛿𝛿12 = 𝛿𝛿23 = 𝛿𝛿23 = 0
(2) 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : permutation symbol (Levi-Civita symbol)
1, Even permutation (123, 231, 312)
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = −1, Odd permutation (132, 321)
0, Otherwise (any two indices have the same number)
어떤 순열이 있을 때, 이 순열에서 어떤 수와 어떤 수의 자리를 맞바꿈을 한다고
했을 때 이 위치 교환을 짝수 번 하고 얻어낸 순열을 짝순열이라고 한다. 반대로
홀수 번 하고 얻어낸 순열은 홀순열이 된다. 우순열과 비슷한 의미이다.
예) 1, 2, 3, 4라는 순열이 있을 때, 이를 2, 1, 3, 4로 한 번 바꾸고 2, 3, 1, 4로
다시 한 번 바꾸면 위치 교환 횟수는 2번이 되므로 2, 3, 1, 4는 1, 2, 3, 4의
짝순열이 된다. scienceall.com
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 = −𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘𝑗𝑗 = −𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
• In the above, we used the indices 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑘𝑘 but it does not have any meaning
• You may use the indices such as 𝛿𝛿𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 , 𝛿𝛿𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 , 𝜖𝜖𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 , 𝜖𝜖𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 as you please.
(3) Dot product of unit vectors
• In the Cartesian coordinate system, the unit vectors are of unit length and
mutually orthogonal. Therefore,
𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
• Here, we should note that 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 � 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 = 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and the dot product (inner product) is commutative.
(4) Cross product of unit vectors
• Can be summarized by one formula
𝐞𝐞1 × 𝐞𝐞2 = 𝐞𝐞3 𝐞𝐞2 × 𝐞𝐞1 = −𝐞𝐞3 𝐞𝐞1 × 𝐞𝐞1 = 0
3
𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 × 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 → � 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1
Summation convention
• The index k appears twice and it is dummy
• Thus, it should be interpreted with the summation convention
• However, due to the property of 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , it is not zero only for the case when
𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑘𝑘 are distinct and so far for the given 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, only one 𝑘𝑘 value has non-
zero value as shown above If 𝑖𝑖 = 1, 𝑗𝑗 = 2, If 𝑖𝑖 = 2, 𝑗𝑗 = 1,
3 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖121 = 0 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖211 = 0
� 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 = 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖1 𝐞𝐞1 + 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 𝐞𝐞2 + 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖3 𝐞𝐞3 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖122 = 0 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖212 = 0
𝑘𝑘=1
𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖123 = 1 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖213 = −𝜖𝜖123 = −1
• Also, note that the cross product is NOT commutative
𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 × 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 = 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 = −𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 = −𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 × 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
3 3
� 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 − � 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘=1
Vector operations with index notation
• Practice, practice, and practice (get familiar with these notations and rules)
(1) Dot product of two vectors
3 3
𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
3 3
= � � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
3 3
= � � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
= � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3
𝑖𝑖=1
3 3
𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
3 3
= � � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
3 3
= � � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
= � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
• In the above, the summation symbols are used explicitly for your better
understanding
• However, the whole procedure can be done very quickly if you accept the
index notation and the summation convention as following.
3
𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 → � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
Dummy index 𝑖𝑖 appears twice
• As you have seen in the previous slide, the summation convention makes
your life much easier and that is one of many reasons why we admire the
great mind Einstein
𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖
(Note 1) In the above, the components 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 themselves are scalars and
they can be multiplied freely. On the other hand, 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 , 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 are unit vectors and
must follow the vector operations.
(Note 2) It should be noted that different indices 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗 are used for 𝐚𝐚 and b. If
the same indices were used, you may be in trouble because the
independence of 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛 in multiplication, for instance,
3 3
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 = � � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
3
but 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
→ The two things are not the same if the coordinate system is NOT
orthogonal (will become clear when we study the cross product)
(Rule) Use different index for each vector at the starting point. Even for the
same vector that appears twice or more, give different index for each
appearance.
e.g.1) 𝐚𝐚 � 𝐚𝐚 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
e.g.2) 𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 × 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
(2) Cross product of two vectors
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 × 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
3 3 3
= 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 × 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗
� � � 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
= 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1 𝑘𝑘=1
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
(Note) If you were to use the same index for 𝐚𝐚 and 𝐛𝐛, you would be in
trouble as following:
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 × 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 × 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 = 0
→ The reason for the trouble is that you lost the independence of two
vector in the cross product operation
(3) Triple product of three vectors
𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 = 𝐛𝐛 � 𝐜𝐜 × 𝐚𝐚 = 𝐜𝐜 � 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛
= 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝐞𝐞𝑗𝑗 × 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑘𝑘
(2) Cross product of two vectors
3 3 3 3
= 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑙𝑙 → � � � � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑙𝑙
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑙𝑙=1
= 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝐞𝐞𝑖𝑖 � 𝐞𝐞𝑙𝑙
3 3 3 3
= 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙 → � � � � 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑙𝑙=1
= 𝜖𝜖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘
3 3 3
= 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 → � � � 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1 𝑘𝑘=1
• Implication of the triple product of three vectors mentioned in the previous
slide:
• We learned previously that the outer product a × b is defined as a vector c that is
perpendicular (orthogonal) to both a and b, with a direction given by the right-hand rule
and a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram (평행사변형) that the vectors
span.
𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 = 𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛 sin 𝜃𝜃
• Since, 𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜 = 𝐛𝐛 � 𝐜𝐜 × 𝐚𝐚 = 𝐜𝐜 � 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 , the volume of the parallelepiped (평행육면체)
is the area of the base multiplied by the height, and thus,
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛 𝐜𝐜 cos 𝝓𝝓
= 𝐜𝐜 � 𝐚𝐚 × 𝐛𝐛
= 𝐚𝐚 � 𝐛𝐛 × 𝐜𝐜
