Chapter three

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

By Ayele G. (MPH)

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

 Management functions
1. Planning ………………………………..………P

2. Organizing

3. Staffing I

4. Leading/directing

5. Controlling ……………………………..……...E

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

1. Planning

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

 Session objectives
At the end of this session the students will able to :

Define planning

Describe types of planning

Discuss conditions for successful Plan

Explain steps to be followed during planning

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Planning…
—Planning is deciding in advance:
what to do

how to do

who will do it and

with what to do it.

—Planning bridges the gap between where we
are and where we want to go in the future.
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
Planning…
 Compiling & analyzing information in order to
arrive at a decision about what should be done.

Is the process of establishing an organizational

objectives & charting out suitable course of
actions for achieving these objectives.

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Health planning
Health planning is the process of:
Defining community health problem

Identifying needs and resources

Establishing priority problems and goals

Setting administrative action to reach at those

goals

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Components of definitions of planning

• Important components include:

where are we going (objectives)
with what (resources)
how (method of implementation)
when (future)
Who (responsible person)

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Purpose of planning
Provides direction

To reach the objectives of the organization

Minimize risk by reducing uncertainties

Minimizes waste and redundancy

Reduces the Impact of change

Sets standards to facilitate control

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Types of plans
Plans can be classified on different bases.
The most important ones are:

— Repetitiveness

— Time dimension, and

— Scope/breadth dimension

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Types of plans . . . .
Classification of Plans Based on Repetitiveness
• Standing Plans:
That can be used again and again
Include policy, procedure, method, and
rule.
• Single-use Plans:
─ Plans that are not used once the objective
is accomplished
─ Used only once
─ Include programs, projects and budgets
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
Classification of Plans Based on Time
• Long-range planning
– The time may range usually from 5 - 10 years
• Intermediate-range planning
‾ Ranges for 2-3years
• Short-range planning
– Constitute the steps towards the
implementation of long-range plans
– Ranges from 1 to 2 years

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Classification of Plans Based on Scope

• Q Strategic Planning: is a long-term planning

that involves all the organization’s
management areas and includes goals,
strategic objectives, strategies, and
measurable results.

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

 Strategic Planning:
Are designed by high-ranking managers

Making decision how resources will be spent

It is a long term plan

It is an allocative planning

Example: GTP, MDG, HSDP

• Q Operational ( tactical) plans:

Contain details for implementing strategic plans.

Short term plan that emphasize.

Setting of monitorable timetables & schedules

It is an activity planning

Example: course plan, weekly action plan

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

• Contingency plans
Alternative plan that can be implemented
when the original plan is inadequate because
of changing circumstances.

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

QW Differences b/n strategic and tactical
plan Operational
Areas of Strategic plans
difference (Tactical ) plans
Experts involved Developed by low- Developed by upper
level management. level management

Time horizon Covers short period Covers relatively

(1 week to 1 year) longer period (five
years or more)

Scope Narrow range of Wide range of goals

operations

Degree of detail Detail & specific Simplistic and

activities general
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
Steps in Health Planning

1. Situational analysis

2. Priority setting

3. Setting objectives & Targets

4. Identifying obstacles and limitations

5. Designing the strategies

6. Writing Plan of action

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
1) Situational analysis

It is a process of gathering and analyzing of

data to provide information

Examine the current and projected health

situation, and demographic pattern

Analysis of present and future health needs of

the population

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

SWOT analysis
• Is a strategic planning tool that matches
internal organizational strength and
weakness with external opportunity and
threat

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

SWOT analysis framework
Internal external

Positive Strength Opportunities

Negative Weakness Threats

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

Factors to be analyzed
• Population characteristics
• Infrastructure
• Policy and political environment
• Community health need
• Health service coverage
• Available Resource
• Past implementation experience
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
2) Priority setting
 All problems identified during situational
analysis should be prioritized.
 Because all problems cannot be solved with
limited resources we have in hand
Criteria's used to set priority problems:
▬Magnitude
▬Severity
▬Feasible
▬Sustainability
▬Community concern
▬Political concern
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
3) Setting objectives and targets
Vision, mission and objectives should be
clearly defined.
Vision:
• A vision is a picture of a desired future which
describes where the organization wants to be.
• It includes an image that you can see in your
mind.
Example: To see healthy and productive
population of district X.
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
 objectives and targets….
Mission: A mission states why the organization
exists.

Example: To reduce mortality, morbidity and

disability of people of district X through
providing a comprehensive package of
promotive, preventive, curative and
rehabilitative health service.
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
Objectives
• Objective should be ‘’SMART’’
S –specific
M –measurable
A –achievable
R –realistic
T –time specific
Example: By the end of 2013, 90% of eligible
children in Harar town will be vaccinated
against all vaccine preventable disease.
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
4)Identifying obstacles & Challenges
• Obstacles usually determines how the
objectives will be met

• So resource, legislative & organizational

policies should be systematically assessed

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

 Understanding and using the Challenge Model
The Challenge Model is a tool that you can use to
improve the performance of any group.”
Understanding and using the Challenge Model
A problem is “out there” and is often blamed on
external forces.
A challenge is something you own and take on.
Challenge Model provides a systematic approach to
achieving results in which groups identify and face one
challenge at a time.
Taking on a challenge requires that you are committed
to working together—as a team—to reach the result you
want to achieve.
 The Process of challenge model
Step1:Review organizational mission and Vision
Step 2: Create a shared vision
Step 3: Agree on one measurable result
Step 4: Assess the current situation
Step 5: Identify the obstacles and their root causes
Step 6: Select priority actions
Step 7: Develop an action plan
Step 8: Implement the plan and M&E your progress
Root cause analysis

▬Root cause analysis involves identifying the

root causes of problems.

▬RCA is practiced on the belief that the

problems are best solved by eliminating root
causes, rather than addressing the symptom.
 Techniques of RCA
1) Q THE FISHBONE TECHNIQUE

▬Purpose: To identify the root causes of the

current, undesirable situation keeping you from
achieving your intended result.
 Fishbone diagram….
In the Fishbone diagram, the causes can be
grouped under four categories:
• People: Knowledge, skills, motivation, support

• Policies: Rules and regulations

• Processes and procedures: Standards,

equipment

• Environment: WHOf, RHB, community, other

stakeholders…
The Fish bone Diagram
 2. The Five Whys Technique
Purpose
• The Five Why is used for identifying the
primary or root causes of a problem.

• Asking “why” five times prevents mistaking

symptoms from causes,
Example:
• Cold chain frequently breaks down,
interrupting vaccination campaigns.
• Why is the current situation like this?
Response: Because there is no back-up during
power outages.
• Why is this so?
Response: Because there was no money in the
budget for a back-up arrangement.
• Why is this so?
Response: Because no one thought about it when
the budget was made.
• Why is this so?
Response: Because the budget was made by an
accountant who does not know the importance
of an uninterrupted cold chain.
• Why is this so?
Response: Because technical experts do not get
involved in budgeting.

• At this point you might see that what is missing is

more involvement of technical experts in setting
budgets.
5) Designing the strategies
• Strategy is courses of action to achieve
organizations, vision/mission and goals

• It is the method through which the plan is

implemented.

Failing to plan is planning to fail!!

6) QW Plan of action
At a minimum, an action plan should
identify:
• The actions or activities that will be
implemented;
• Who will be responsible for carrying out
each action;
• The human, financial, and material
resources needed to implement the
actions;
• A timeline showing when the actions will
be carried out.
Failing to plan is planning to fail!!
Challenge: Indicators:

Desired measurable result:

Priority actions:

Activities Person responsible Start date End date Resources

2. Organizing

By Ayele G.
42
 Session objectives:
At the end of this session the students will able to :
• Define organization

• Understand organizational structure

• Explain types of organization

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 Organizational Structure
Organizing is the process by which managers
establish working relationships among resources.
Organization is two or more people working
together in a coordinated fashion
Organizational structure:
The process of arranging jobs within an
organization to achieve the mission.
Formal system of task and reporting relationship.

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 Principles of Organization
– A process involving decisions about six key
elements:
• Work specialization
• Departmentalization
• Chain of command
• Span of control
• Centralization and decentralization
• Formalization

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 Organizational Structure
• Work Specialization(division of lobour)

– Dividing tasks into manageable units with

each job completed by different person.

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Steps during division of lobour
• Divide the whole work in to manageable jobs
• Group similar jobs in to sections
• Combine related sections together
• Assemble related sections into department
• Assign head to each department
• Grant responsibility to the person in charge
• Give authority equal to responsibility
• Create clear span of control
• Allocates organizational resources.
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 Departmentalization by types
– Departmentalization – Grouping of related activities
into similar units.
1. Functional

 Grouping jobs by functions performed

2. Customer

 Grouping jobs by type of customer and needs

3. Product

 Grouping jobs by product line

4. Geographical

 Grouping jobs on the basis of territory

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Organization Structure…
• Chain of Command
Continuous line of authority from top to
bottom of an organization, clarifies who
reports to whom.
Tells you who your boss is, where to go for
help.
• Authority
–The right of a manager to do something
or to tell people what to do.
–The right of taking decision due to
position
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 Types of Authority
Line Authority

– Someone in the direct line or chain of

command who has formal authority over
people and resources

– Officially sanctioned power to issue order

for the subordinate and over resources

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 Types of authority
Staff Authority

– Managers who are functional-area

specialists that give advice and assist to line
managers.

– They provide advisory and counseling role

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 Organization Structure…
• Unity of Command
– The concept that a person should have one boss and
should report only to that person.

• Q Span of Control
– It is the number of employees reporting to a manager

– The number of employees reporting to one manager

affects the number of levels of managers.
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 Span of control
• When a manager manages a small number of
subordinate it is called narrow span of control.

• When a manager manages large number of

subordinate it is called wide span of control.

• There is no specific limit to decide the span of

management as it varies from organization and
situation to situation.
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54
Organization Structure…
• Centralization: Centralization of authority
refers to systematic retention or concentration
of managerial authority in a relatively few
managerial position at the top level

• That is, managers at middle and operating

level are vested with very little authority.

55
• Decentralization: refers to systematic and
purposeful dispersal of managerial authority
among all levels of management

• That is, managers at all levels are vested with

authority up to their task and responsibility.
• Decision-making is pushed down to the
managers who are closest to the action.

56
Delegation
• Sharing some or whole parts of works or
management to others, normally to immediate
subordinates.

• Delegation of Authority is a process by which

managers assign some of their tasks to their
subordinate and permit them to exercise
authority on their behalf.
57
 Actions during delegation

1. Assign duty to subordinate

2. Grant sufficient authority

3. Make him feel that he has obligation

4. Explain to others that he/she had delegated

5. Give support and follow up

58
Organization Structure…

• Formalization

– The degree to which jobs within the

organization are standardized and the
extent to which employee behavior is
guided by rules and procedures.

59
 Q Tall vs. Flat Organization

• Tall structures have many levels of authority

and narrow spans of control.

– As hierarchy levels increase, communication gets

difficult delaying decision making.

60
Tall Organizations

61
Tall Vs Flat Organizations
• Flat structures have fewer levels and wide
spans of control.
– Structure results in quick communications but can
lead to overworked managers.

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3. STAFFING
INTRODUCTION
• The management function that deals with
recruitment, selection, placement, training
and development of organization members.

• It involves filling the organization structure

through proper and effective personnel.

• Staffing means filling and keeping filled

positions in the organisation structure.
Basic Activities of staffing
Staffing includes seven basic activities.
1. Human resource planning
2. Recruitment
3. Selection
4. Socialization (Orientation)
5. Training and Development
6. Performance Appraisal
7. Promotions, Transfers, Demotions,
discipline and Separations.
1. Human resource planning
 Human resource planning is a process by
which an organization identifies its human
resource need and decide to bring the right
number and kinds of people.

 Planning for future needs

 Planning for future balance (number needed

versus present)
2. Q Recruitment
 The development of a pool of job candidates
in accordance with a human resource plan

 Once an organization identifies its human

resource needs through employment planning,
it can begin the process of recruiting potential
candidates.
Recruitment includes...
• Job description: a written description of a non-
management job

• Position description: a written description of a

management position

• Hiring specification: a written description of the

education, experience, and skills needed
Principles of recruitment
• Prohibiting discrimination

• Equal employment opportunity

• Affirmative action

• Equal Pay: like pay for like jobs

• Comparable worth
3. Selection
 Selection is the process by which an
organization chooses a person who best
meet the selection criteria from applicants.
 The organization decides whether or not to
make job offer and the candidate decides
whether or not to accept it.
 Steps in the Selection Process
1. Preliminary Screening

2. Employment Test

3. Employment Interview

4. Background and Reference Checks

5. Job offer

6. Physical Examination
 Difference between Recruitment and
Selection
Recruitment Selection
It is an activity of establishing contact It is a process of picking up more
between employers and applicants. competent and suitable employees.

It encourages large number of It attempts at rejecting unsuitable

Candidates for a job. candidates.

The candidates have not to cross over

Many hurdles have to be crossed.
many hurdles.

It is a positive approach. It is a negative approach.

It proceeds selection. It follows recruitment.

05-07-2025 72
Socialization/Orientation
 After the best applicant is selected and
offered a job, it is necessary to introduce
the new employee to the philosophy, rules
and polices, etc. of the organization.

 It is a program designed to help employees

to fit into the organization smoothly
Types of information provided
• General information

• About the organization

• Services /products expected

• Detailed presentation  policies, rules...

 Training and Development
 Training begins the very first day, which is
designed to improve the person’s skills and
knowledge to do the current job at high level.

 Development refers to the organizations efforts

to help employee’s acquire knowledge, skills
and behavior that improve their ability to
meet changes in job requirements and
customer needs.
Approaches of training
On-the-job training
 Job rotation
 Internship: Combined classroom teaching
 Apprenticeship: training under guidance of
skilled co-worker
Off- the-job training
 Vestibule training: training on realistic job
setting or equipment
 Behaviorally experienced training:
simulation exercises, cases, games, role-
playing (done outside the organization)
Performance appraisal
 It is the process through which a manager
measures employees’ activities and output
against organizations objectives.

 It involves measuring actual performance of an

employee and providing information about
his/her strengths and weakness
Purpose of Performance Appraisal
 To give feedback,

 To recognize outstanding performance,

 To locate the need for additional training

 To identify candidates for promotion

Promotion, Transfer, Demotion and
Separation
A. Promotion
 Moving to a higher position and responsibility
based on outstanding performance
B. Transfers: Shift to other positions
Discipline, Demotion and Separation
C. Discipline: when the organization’s policy is
violated
• Steps:
 Warning
 Reprimand
 Probation
 Suspension
 Disciplinary transfer
 Demotion
 Discharge
• For poor performance, separation is better
than letting the employee stay on the job.
4. LEADING
 Session Objectives
 Describe concepts of leadership and management

Differentiate between leader and manager

Identify the key leading and managing practices

Basic concept and practice of governance

Apply leading and managing practices for results

 Definitions of concepts
Leadership
• The process in which one engages others to set and
achieve a common goal, often an organizationally
defined goal (Robbins & Judge, 2010).
Management
• The process of accomplishing predetermined
objectives through the effective use of human,
financial, and technical resources (Longest Jr.,
Rakich, & Darr, 2000).
• Leadership is concerned with setting
goals (vision), while management is
concerned with the execution of
actions to achieve these goals.
Theories of leadership
[Link] trait Theory:
• Identifies the personal characteristics of
leaders such as skill to lead, self confidence
and intelligence.
• “leaders are born but not made”

2. The behavioral Theory

• studied behavioral characteristics of leaders
• “ leaders are made but not just born”
 Theories of leadership
3. The contingency approach:

• Convinced that no one best style of leadership

exists, vary with the situation or circumstances

• Successful leadership occurs when the leader’s

style matches with the situation
4. Transformational Leadership
• Transformational leaders are visionaries who
challenge people to achieve high level of
performance.
• Because they are masters of change:-
• They can envision a better future

• Effectively communicate that vision

• Inspire others to willingly make it a reality

Who is a leader?
Leaders are:
 Agents of change
 Has a vision
 Influence others to realize vision.
 Inspire and challenge people to take action.
 Examples of great leaders: N. Mandela, M.
Gandhi, M. Luther King, A. Lincoln.
 Differences between a Manager & a leader

 A Manager is a formally appointed and authorized

individual in an organization to direct and support
others to do their work effectively and oversee
resource utilization

 A Leader is an individual in a team capable of

influencing the team towards goal formulation
and achievement.
 Differences between…

• That is why the notion of "managers who

lead," is advocate to make sure that both
areas are covered.
 Differences (Managers versus leaders)

Manager Leader
A copy An original
Control Inspire
Maintains Develops
Seek Objectives Set Vision
Reactive Proactive
Appeal to head Appeal to heart
Prevent risk/ make rule Accept risk/break rule
Avoid conflict Uses conflict
Blames others Takes blame
Do thing right/efficient Do the right thing
 Dimensions of leadership
• Leadership involves not just doing but being.

• Leadership is exercised with others.

• Leadership is about responsibility, not about

position.

• Leadership happens at all levels.

• Leadership and management are two distinctive

complementary action
Leadership styles
1. Autocratic/dictatorship
• Keep authority and control in their own hand

• Expect employees to follow their orders

• No Participation of employees

• Traditional, unilateral

• They says “Do just what I say”

 Leadership style…
[Link]: Subordinates are consulted and
their feedback taken into consideration in the
decision making process
• They says “This is my decision , improve it
before you take it”
• 3. Democratic/participatory:
• Encourages full employees participation, even
though the leaders make the final decision
• Members encouraged to demonstrate initiative
& creativity and interest
• They says “Let’s do together”
Leadership style…
4. Laissez- faire or anarchic or free- reign
• The leader is just a figure head and does not
give any direction
• Lets the subordinates plan, organize and
develop their own techniques for
accomplishment of organizational policies
• The leader becoming one of members
• They say “do as you like” and used as remote
control
Leadership style, grids model
• Developed by Blake and Mouton.
• Uses two variables of leadership
orientation
• “Concern for people” and “concern for
production”
Identified five distinct leadership styles:
• 9,9……Team management
• 9,1……Authority compliance
• 1,9……Country club management
• 1,1……Impoverished management
• 5,5……Middle of the road management
 Q Leadership style, grids model
(1,9)- Country club mgt (9,9) –team mgt
High

Concern
for People
(5,5)- Middle of the road mgt

Low (1,1) – Impoverished mgt (9,1)- Authority Cop

Low Concern for Job High mgt
 QW Leading and managing practices
Leading practices:

Scan: assessing conditions that influences result

Focus: directing attention to priority actions
Align and mobilize: motivating stakeholders
to mobilize resources to reach goals

Inspiring: creating a climate of continuous

learning and staff show commitment
 Managing practices:
 Plan: preparing a set of activities, timeline, resources

 Organize: developing structures, systems and

processes to support the plan
 Implement: Activities are carried out efficiently,
effectively and Responsively

 Monitor and evaluate: continuously tracking about the

status of achievements and results
 Governance practice
Cultivate Accountability

Engage Stakeholders

 Set Shared Direction

Steward Resources
1. Cultivate Accountability:
Foster a facilitative decision-making environment
based on systems and structures that support
transparency and accountability.

2. Engaging Stakeholders:

Identify, engage and collaborate with diverse

stakeholders representing the full spectrum of
interested parties.
3. Set Shared Direction:

Develop a collective vision of the ‘ideal state’ and

designing an action plan with measurable result.
4. Steward Resources

Allocating sufficient and sustainable resources and

creating accountability for Efficiency utilization
 Integrated leading and managing process
 Leading and managing don’t form distinct,
sequential processes

 The leading practices are not independent of the

managing practices

 Effective managers move fluidly between leading

and managing to support their teams

 That is why managers who lead is advocated

Integrated leading and managing process
Leading, Managing and Governing for results Model
 The proof for good leadership lies in achieving measurable
improvements in health outcomes

 Managers who learned to apply the LMG practices can bring

about changes in the:

 work environment & empowerment of health workers,

 strong management systems,

 responsive health systems with sufficient allocation of

resources

This leads to increased access, availability & utilization of

services, improved quality and low cost.
Managers who lead triangle
 Work climate
• Work climate refers to the prevailing mood of a
workplace, what it feels like to work there

• Work climate is the “weather of the workplace.”

Just as weather conditions can affect your daily
activities, work climate influences your behavior
at work.
• A positive work climate stimulates staff motivation
Link between positive work climate and improved
work performance
• When people work in a supportive environment,
they strive to produce results
 Factors that influence work climate
The climate of a work group develops through the
influence of an organization’s:
 History

 Culture

 Management strategy and structure

 External environment

 Managers’ practices and competencies in leading a team

To improve work climate and staff motivation :
Know your staff, their motivations, work styles,
and interests

Know what motivates the workers, what they

value and what rouses their emotions

Focus on providing challenge, clarity, support and

feedback to your group.
5. Decision Making
 Learning Objectives
After studying the chapter, you should be able to:
 Understand decision making process

Differentiate between programmed and non

programmed decisions

Describe the steps that managers should

take to make the best decisions.
 Decision Making…

• Decision: is a choice made between available

alternatives.

• Decision Making: is the process of developing

and analyzing alternatives and choosing from
among them.
 Decision Making
• Decision Making is:
– The process by which managers respond to
opportunities and threats
 Decision Making

• Decisions in response to opportunities

– occurs when managers respond to ways to

improve organizational performance

• Decisions in response to threats

– events inside or outside the organization are

adversely affecting organizational performance
 Q Types of Decision

Programmed Decision
– Routine decision making that follows established
rules or guidelines.
• Managers have made the same decision many times
before

• Little ambiguity involved

 Types of Decisions

Non-Programmed Decisions
– Non routine decision made in response to
unusual or novel opportunities and threats.

– There are no rules to follow since the decision is

new.
• Decisions are made based on information, and
manager’s judgment.
Six Steps in Decision Making
 Decision Making Steps

Step 1. Recognize Need for a Decision

Managers must first realize that a decision must be
made.

Step 2. Generate Alternatives

Feasible alternative courses of actions must be made.

If good alternatives are missed, the decision is poor.
 Decision Making Steps

Step 3. Assess/evaluate Alternatives

– What are the advantages and disadvantages of
each alternative?

– Managers should specify criteria, then evaluate.

 Decision Making Steps
Step 3. Assess/Evaluate alternatives
Criteria

Legality Is the alternative legal and will not violate any

domestic and international laws or
government regulations?

Ethicalness Is the alternative ethical and will not bring

harm to the stakeholders unnecessarily?

Economic Feasibility Can organization’s performance goals sustain

this alternative?
Practicality Does the management have the capabilities
and resources required to implement the
alternative?
QW General
Criteria for
Evaluating
Possible
Courses of
Action
 Decision Making Steps

Step 4. Choose Among Alternatives

– Rank the various alternatives and make a decision

– Managers must be sure that all information

available is brought to bear on the problem or
issue at hand
 Decision Making Steps

Step 5. Implement Chosen Alternative

 Managers must carry out the chosen alternative.

 Often a decision is made and not implemented.

Step 6. Learn From Feedback

 Managers should consider what went right and
wrong with the decision and learn for the future.
 How To Make Better Decisions
 Increase Your Knowledge
– Ask questions

– Get experience

– Use consultants

– Do your research

 Use Your Intuition/judgement

– makes a decision based on your accumulated
knowledge and experience.
 How To Make Better Decision…

 Weigh the Pros and Cons

 Don’t Overstress the Finality of Your Decision

– Remember that few decisions are forever.

 Make Sure the Timing Is Right

6. COMMUNICATION
 Learning objectives
At the end of this session, students will be able to:
Define Communication
Identify components of communication
Describe Common barriers to effective
communication
Describe key principles of Communication
Identify types of communication
Identify effective Organizational Communication
 Communication
• It is the process by which people attempt to
share information to understood each other

• Communication is a process in which

information is shared with another in order to
reach at mutual understanding

• To be effective, managers should spend most of

their time in communicating
Components of communication

1. Source (Encoder)- Originator of message

2. Message- the idea that is communicated

3. Channel- physical means by which the

message travels through

 Components cont…

Channels include:
• Verbal- most common
• Written words- printed material
• Picture
• Music
• Non-verbal communication/Body language
• Any combination
 Components cont…

4. Receiver (decoder): one for whom the

message is intended
5. Feedback: the mechanism of assessing what
happened to receiver after communication
6. Noise: anything that diminishes or interferes
with communication, so that not all messages
reach the receiver.
 Communication models
1. Linear (One-way) Model

MESSAGE
Sender Receiver

– Messages from experts, educators and mass

media

– No feedback mechanism
 Communication models
2. Systems (Two-way) Model
Sender Receiver
MESSAGE
Sender CHANNEL Receiver

FEEDBACK

– Bidirectional information flow

– Interactive form of communication

• Eg. patient counselling/panel discussion

 Common barriers to effective communication

Competition for attention (Noise)

Language
Age differences
Educational status
Socio economic gap
Attitudes/beliefs
Failure to seek or offer feedback
Physical barriers
 Organizational communication

▬ Downward : directive from senior managers

Example- to assign duties, give instruction…

▬Upwards : non-directive from down up

Example- to give feedback, to inform progress

▬Lateral/Horizontal : among peers at same level

Example- to share information
 Types of communication

Intrapersonal communication

Self communication

Interpersonal communication

– Between individuals or within groups

– Dynamic/Bidirectional

– Question and answer/ Multi-sensory

Principles of effective interpersonal
communications
• Listening well

• Exchange of ideas with clients

• Be observant

• A word might have different meanings

• Pay attention to body language

 Principles of effective…
 Thinking before you speaking.
Judgment/bias free approach
Building trust with honesty
Giving honest feedback.
Admittance for what is not known
(openness).
 Mass media communication

− Aimed at awareness creation and

knowledge transmission
– Printed media/ Radio/ TV/ Traditional
means
– Traditional like proverbs, fables, stories
– Poor feedback
 Mass media communication

Advantages
• Reaches many people quickly
• Believable
Disadvantages
• May create insecurity and Confusion when
contradictory messages are transmitted
• One sided
• Creates “This doesn’t concern me” attitude
 Partnership and Networking

What is Partnership?
• Formal/informal arrangement b/n organizations to
work together towards a common goal
• Example: working together to achieving MDGs,
What is networking?
• Is important business of making informal/formal
contacts, chatting, and picking up further contacts
• It is about connection between individuals than
partnerships formed
 Partnership and Networking

Purposes of Communication,
Partnership and Networking
 Initiating action, consultation, making decisions
 Sharing information
 Establishing relations
 Reinforcing commitment
 Sharing experience
 Mobilizing partners and stakeholders
 Improving listening skills

 Effective listening encourages relationships.

 Good listening improves morale.

 When leaders listen effectively they were respected.

 This helps satisfy others’ needs for self-esteem.

 As a result, the morale of the group improves

 Negotiation skill

Negotiation skill: is the process of gettin the

best and the right result from a situation
where two sides want something from each
other and each would like to influence the
outcome in their favour.
 Negotiation styles
1. The soft approach
 Embarrassed by the conflict

 Worried about hurting others

 More concerned about stays friendly than

achieving good results

 Yields to pressure

 Accepts losses to stay in the relationship

7-149
 Negotiation styles
2. Hard approach
Sees the situation as a battle

Determined to be a victorious

Sets absolute deadlines

Wins by intimidating opponents

7-150
 Negotiation styles
3. Joint approach
Neither the soft nor the hard approach

Is likely to produce a lasting success

Work to satisfy the goal of the two party

7-151
 7. Controlling
• Control refers to the task of ensuring that activities are
producing the desired results.

• Controlling is determining what is being accomplished

and if necessary, applying corrective measures so that
performance takes place according to plan.

• It ensures that the overall directions of individuals are

consistent with short and long range plan.
 Steps of controlling
• There are essentially four steps in controlling
process
Establish objectives and standards.
Measure actual performance.
Compare results with standards.
Take corrective action.
 Step 1: Establishing Standards
Standards: are units of measurement established by
management to serve as benchmarking for comparing
performance level
• The control process begins with establishment of
performance objectives/standards.
• Establish a base for future measurement
• Predicts specific expectations for individuals
• Occurs mainly in top management
 Step 2: Measure Actual Performance
• Measurements must be accurate to spot
deviations between what really occurs and what
is most desired.

• Without measurement, effective control is not

possible.
 During performance measurement
management should pay attention for:
• Timeliness of information

• Appropriate units of measurement

• Reliability of information

• Validity of information

• Channeling information to proper Authority

• Simple: minimal and flexible

Step 3: Compare Performance to Standard
• Comparing results with standards determines
variation
• If performance matches the preset standards
managers may assume everything is under
control
• A slight departure from standard is normal
and expected
• But gross departure needs immediate
corrective action
 Step 4: Take Corrective Action
• This step is necessary if performance fall short
of standard
• It should be taken at appropriate time
• Corrective action may be done by:
–Adjustment of resource allocation
–Modification in selection and training
–Improvement in supervision and
motivation
–Reassignment or clarification of duties
–Changing objectives
 Forms of management control
• There are three forms of management control.
1. Monitoring:

 Monitoring is the routine collection and

analysis of information to track progress
against set plans and check compliance to
established standards.
2. Evaluation
• Evaluations involve identifying and reflecting upon
the effects of what has been done.
• Their findings allow managers to learn from
experience and improve future interventions.
Types of evaluation
 Formative evaluations: occur during programme
implementation to improve performance and
assess compliance.
 Summative evaluations: occur at the end of
programme implementation to assess
effectiveness and impact.
 Types of evaluation…
• Internal or self-evaluations: are conducted by
those responsible for implementing a
programme.
• External or independent evaluations: are
conducted by evaluators from outside of the
implementing team, often by technical
expertise.
 Monitoring and Evaluation
Indicator
• An indicator is like a road sign.

• Shows whether you are on the right road, how far

you have gone to reach at your destination

• Indicator—a marker of change over time

• Are markers of progress toward your desired result.

• It allow you to measure whether any change occurs as a

result of your leading and managing practices
3. Supervision

• Supervision is defined as a process of guiding,

helping, training, and encouraging staff to
improve their performance in order to provide
high-quality health services

• Supervision is a helping process it is not an

inspection
Steps during supervision:
• Prepare for conducting supervision
• Conduct supervision
– Introduction
– Interview Appropriate Staff
– Performance Review
– Administrative Review
– Community Involvement Review
– On-site Update/Training
– Discussion and Problem Solving
– Conduct Visits to Selected Health Facilities
– Provide Constructive Feed Back
– Record and report supervisory findings
Any Question

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