PROGRAM : BBA

SEMESTER : 1
COURSE NAME & CODE : DBB1111 – COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

1) Illustrate the architecture of a computer system and explain the functions of its
various units.

The explanation of the architecture of a computer system is as follows:

 The way a computer system is built together and the purpose behind the operations
that direct how it works together form its architecture.
 The following are the elements that make up a computer system's architecture:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer system is made up of the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU).
 A CPU is the brain of a computer system.
 The operating system and applications are run by the CPU, which is a sophisticated
collection of electronic circuits, by carrying out and integrating the given instructions.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 A computer's ALU performs mathematical and logical operations.

 The integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations are carried out by the arithmetic
unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU), two subunits of the ALU.

3. Control Unit (CU)

 By instructing the system to execute programme instructions, CU manages and

controls computer operations.

4. Memory

 Main (or primary) memory and auxiliary (or secondary) memory are the two subunits
that make up computer memory.
 A processor can access running programmes and services that are momentarily stored
in a particular memory location using primary memory.
  Users can store data and information in secondary memory so that it can be quickly
and readily retrieved, communicated, and utilized by apps and services.
 The CPU has direct access to only the primary memory; it has no direct access to the
secondary memory.

5. Input Devices

 A computer can receive data in the form of text, pictures, video, or sound from an
input device.
 A computer system frequently uses input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner,
joystick, microphone, etc.

6. Output Devices

 An output device renders the computer's intended transmission of data into a form that
is comprehensible to humans.
 Projectors, speakers, headphones, printers, and monitors are a few examples of output
devices that are frequently utilized

2) Explain Volatile and Non-Volatile memory.

Volatile and Non-Volatile Memory:
Volatile and non-volatile are two categories of computer memory that differ based on how
they store data and whether the data is preserved when the power is turned off.

1. Volatile Memory:
 Definition: Volatile memory requires continuous power to maintain the stored
information. Once the power supply is interrupted or turned off, the data stored in
volatile memory is lost.
 Examples:
o RAM (Random Access Memory): The most common example of volatile
memory. It stores data temporarily that the CPU needs while performing tasks,
such as running programs.
o Cache Memory: A small, high-speed memory located inside or near the CPU
that stores frequently accessed data for quick retrieval.
 Characteristics:
o Fast Access Speed: Volatile memory typically provides faster read/write
speeds compared to non-volatile memory.
 o Temporary Storage: The data is not retained when the computer is turned off
or restarted.
 Usage:
o Used for tasks that require fast access to data but don't need to be preserved
after power off (e.g., running applications, operating system processes).
2. Non-Volatile Memory:
 Definition: Non-volatile memory retains the stored information even when the power
is turned off or lost. The data remains intact without the need for continuous power
supply.
 Examples:
o Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Magnetic storage devices that store data
permanently.
o Solid State Drives (SSDs): A faster and more durable form of storage
compared to HDDs, using flash memory.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): Used for storing firmware or the boot process, it
is not meant to be modified.
o Flash Memory: Used in USB drives, memory cards, and some storage devices.
 Characteristics:
o Slower Access Speed: Non-volatile memory is generally slower compared to
volatile memory, especially in terms of read/write speeds.
o Permanent Storage: Data is preserved even when the power is off, making it
suitable for long-term storage.
 Usage:
o Used for storing operating systems, software applications, user files, and
firmware that needs to be preserved even after the system shuts down.
Key Differences:

Aspect Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Power Requires constant power to retain

Data is retained without power.
Dependency data.

Examples RAM, Cache Memory HDD, SSD, ROM, Flash Memory

Speed Faster read/write speeds. Slower read/write speeds.

Data is lost when power is turned Data is preserved even after power
Data Persistence
off. loss.

Usage Temporary storage for active tasks. Long-term storage for files and
Aspect Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

programs.

3) What is the Difference between Input and Output Devices?

Difference Between Input and Output Devices:
Input devices and output devices are two fundamental types of peripherals that enable
interaction between a user and a computer system. They serve distinct roles in the flow of
data and information.

1. Input Devices:
 Definition: Input devices are hardware components that allow users to send data or
commands to the computer for processing. They convert user actions or physical data
into a digital format that the computer can understand and process.
 Examples:
o Keyboard: Allows the user to type commands and text into the computer.
o Mouse: A pointing device that lets the user interact with the graphical user
interface (GUI) by clicking, dragging, or selecting objects.
o Scanner: Converts physical documents or images into digital formats.
o Microphone: Captures audio input for processing by the computer.
 Function: Input devices are used to provide data or control signals to the computer.
2. Output Devices:
 Definition: Output devices are hardware components that allow the computer to
communicate or present processed data to the user in a human-readable or perceivable
form.
 Examples:
o Monitor (Display Screen): Shows visual output, such as text, images, and
videos.
o Printer: Produces a hard copy of digital documents or images on paper.
o Speakers: Output audio signals in the form of sound or music.
o Projector: Displays visual output on a larger screen or surface.
 Function: Output devices are used to display, print, or transmit the results of the
computer's processing to the user.
Key Differences:

Aspect Input Devices Output Devices

To send data to the computer for To display or produce data from the
Purpose
processing. computer.

Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Projector,

Examples
Microphone, etc. etc.

Data flows from the user to the Data flows from the computer to the
Data Flow
computer. user.

Allows users to input commands or Provides feedback or results of

Functionality
information. computer processing.

Initiates interaction with the Receives information from the

Interaction
computer. computer.

4) Briefly explain the software development process.

Software Development Process:
The software development process involves a series of steps or phases that are followed to
design, create, and maintain software applications. These steps help ensure that the
software is developed efficiently, meets requirements, and is of high quality.
1. Requirement Analysis:
 Purpose: Understanding and gathering the needs and expectations of the end users
or stakeholders.
 Activities: Discussions, surveys, and analysis to define the software’s functional and
non-functional requirements.
 Outcome: A clear set of specifications detailing what the software should do.
2. System Design:
 Purpose: Defining how the software will meet the requirements.
 Activities: Creating system architecture, database design, interface designs, and
defining the technology stack.
 Outcome: A blueprint of the software system, including detailed design documents.
3. Implementation (Coding):
 Purpose: Translating the design into executable code.
 Activities: Developers write the actual code for the software using programming
languages (e.g., Java, Python, C++).
  Outcome: A working version of the software that is ready for testing.
4. Testing:
 Purpose: Ensuring the software works correctly and meets the requirements.
 Activities: Running various tests (unit testing, integration testing, system testing,
etc.) to find and fix bugs or issues.
 Outcome: A fully functional software product with minimal defects.
5. Deployment:
 Purpose: Making the software available for use by the end users.
 Activities: Deploying the software in the target environment (cloud, servers,
desktops, etc.).
 Outcome: The software is live and accessible to users.
6. Maintenance:
 Purpose: Updating and improving the software over time.
 Activities: Fixing bugs, adding new features, and addressing user feedback.
 Outcome: A continuously improved software product that adapts to new
requirements or issues.
5) Explain the different stages in Software Testing.
Different Stages in Software Testing:
Software testing is a critical phase in the software development process aimed at identifying
and fixing defects to ensure that the software meets the specified requirements. The process
involves several stages, each focusing on different aspects of the software.
1. Requirement Analysis:
 Purpose: Understand the testing requirements based on the software’s functional and
non-functional specifications.
 Activities:
o Review the software requirements and design documentation.
o Identify testable requirements and plan the types of tests needed (e.g.,
functional, security, performance).
 Outcome: A test plan that outlines the scope, objectives, and types of tests to be
conducted.
2. Test Planning:
 Purpose: Create a detailed plan for the testing process, including resources, timelines,
and responsibilities.
  Activities:
o Define testing objectives, deliverables, and the overall approach.
o Identify testing tools, define entry and exit criteria, and allocate resources.
 Outcome: A comprehensive Test Plan that guides the entire testing process.
3. Test Design:
 Purpose: Develop detailed test cases, test scripts, and other testing materials based on
the requirements and design.
 Activities:
o Write test cases covering functional, non-functional, boundary, and edge cases.
o Create test data and prepare the test environment.
 Outcome: Well-defined Test Cases and Test Scripts to execute during testing.
4. Test Execution:
 Purpose: Execute the prepared test cases and report any defects or issues encountered.
 Activities:
o Run the tests on the software to validate functionality, performance, and other
criteria.
o Log defects and errors found during testing.
 Outcome: Test results, including detailed reports of passed and failed test cases, and
identified defects.
5. Defect Reporting and Retesting:
 Purpose: Identify and track defects, then retest after the fixes are implemented.
 Activities:
o Report defects to the development team with sufficient details.
o Developers fix the defects, and testers retest the affected areas to verify the
fixes.
 Outcome: A list of resolved defects and confirmation of their resolution.
6. Regression Testing:
 Purpose: Ensure that new changes or bug fixes have not affected the existing
functionality.
 Activities:
o Re-run previously executed test cases to ensure the software still works as
expected after changes.
  Outcome: Confidence that the new code doesn’t introduce new bugs or issues.
7. User Acceptance Testing (UAT):
 Purpose: Validate the software against user requirements and ensure it is ready for
deployment.
 Activities:
o Conduct testing with end users or stakeholders in a real-world environment to
confirm that the software meets their needs.
 Outcome: Approval from stakeholders that the software is ready for production.
8. Test Closure:
 Purpose: Finalize testing and prepare for software release.
 Activities:
o Evaluate the testing process and document the results.
o Create a summary report that includes test coverage, defect density, and test
results.
o Archive test cases and logs for future reference.
 Outcome: A Test Summary Report that documents all testing activities and outcomes.

6) Describe the various Computer Generations.

Computer Generations:

Computer generations refer to the technological advancements in computer systems over

time, based on the hardware and software used in each era. The history of computers is
categorized into five distinct generations, each marked by significant developments.

1. First Generation (1940-1956):

 Technology: Vacuum Tubes

 Characteristics:
o The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry, which were
large, bulky, and generated a lot of heat.
o These computers were slow, expensive, and consumed a lot of power.
o Input was through punched cards, and output was printed on paper.
 Examples:
o ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
o UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
 Limitations:
o Large size, slow processing, frequent hardware failures, high power
consumption.
2. Second Generation (1956-1963):

 Technology: Transistors
 Characteristics:
o The use of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller,
faster, and more reliable.
o Transistors consumed less power and produced less heat than vacuum tubes.
o Magnetic cores were used for memory, and assembly language replaced
machine language, making programming easier.
 Examples:
o IBM 7090
o CDC 1604
 Limitations:
o Still large in size and expensive, though much more efficient than first-
generation computers.

3. Third Generation (1964-1971):

 Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs)

 Characteristics:
o Integrated circuits (ICs) replaced transistors, which allowed for
miniaturization of the computer’s hardware.
o These computers were faster, smaller, and more reliable than previous
generations.
o Operating systems (OS) were introduced, and computers began supporting
interactive user interfaces.
 Examples:
o IBM 360 series
o DEC PDP-8
 Limitations:
o While smaller and faster, third-generation computers were still relatively
expensive.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present):

 Technology: Microprocessors
 Characteristics:
o The development of microprocessors integrated the entire CPU onto a single
chip, drastically reducing size and cost.
o Personal computers (PCs) became widely available, and software development
also progressed.
o This generation saw the rise of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and
networking, leading to the development of the internet.
 Examples:
o IBM PC
o Apple Macintosh
o Intel 4004 microprocessor
 Limitations:
 o While much smaller and cheaper, issues related to processing power and
storage capacity remain as technology advanced.

5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):

 Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Quantum Computing

 Characteristics:
o The fifth generation of computers is focused on artificial intelligence (AI),
machine learning, and quantum computing.
o These computers aim to perform tasks like human reasoning, language
processing, and problem-solving, making them more autonomous and
intelligent.
o Parallel processing, large-scale integration, and advancements in
nanotechnology and quantum computing are key aspects.
 Examples:
o IBM Watson (AI)
o Quantum Computers like IBM Q and Google’s Sycamore
 Limitations:
o Still in the research and development phase for some technologies, particularly
quantum computing.
 Summary of Key Differences:

Generation Technology Key Characteristics Examples

1st Large, slow, high power
Vacuum Tubes ENIAC, UNIVAC
Generation consumption
2nd
Transistors Smaller, faster, more reliable IBM 7090, CDC 1604
Generation
3rd Integrated Circuits Smaller, faster, more reliable, OS
IBM 360, DEC PDP-8
Generation (ICs) introduced
4th Personal computers, GUI, IBM PC, Apple
Microprocessors
Generation networking, PCs widely available Macintosh, Intel 4004
5th AI, Quantum AI, machine learning, quantum IBM Watson,
Generation Computing computing Quantum Computers