GCSE Chemistry Paper 1 - Complete Study Guide

⚛️ Atoms and Elements

Key Concepts:
All substances are made of atoms
Different types of atoms are called elements
Elements are represented in the periodic table by chemical symbols (e.g., H for hydrogen, O for
oxygen)
Atomic Structure
Protons: Positive charge (+1), mass = 1, located in nucleus
Neutrons: No charge (0), mass = 1, located in nucleus
Electrons: Negative charge (-1), negligible mass, orbit nucleus in shells
🧪 Compounds and Chemical Formulas
A compound is a substance containing two or more different types of atoms chemically bonded
together.
Example: Water (H₂O)
Contains hydrogen and oxygen atoms
For every 1 oxygen atom, there are 2 hydrogen atoms
If there's no number after a symbol, there's an invisible "1"
Chemical Formula Rules:
Subscript numbers indicate how many atoms of each element
No subscript = 1 atom
Coefficients (in front) multiply the entire compound
➗ Balancing Chemical Equations
Key Principle: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions - they must be
conserved.
Steps for Balancing:
1. Count atoms of each element on both sides
 2. Start with elements that appear in only one compound
3. Balance one element at a time
4. Save elements (like O₂) for last
Example: Methane Combustion
CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O (unbalanced)

Step 1: Balance carbon (already balanced - 1 on each side)

Step 2: Balance hydrogen (4 left, 2 right)
CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
Step 3: Balance oxygen (2 left, 4 right)
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O (balanced)

🫗 Mixtures and Solutions

Mixtures
Combination of different elements/compounds not chemically bonded
Can be separated by physical methods
Examples: Air (N₂, O₂, CO₂, etc.), salt water
Solutions
Special type of mixture where one substance dissolves in another
Solute: substance being dissolved (e.g., salt)
Solvent: substance doing the dissolving (e.g., water)
⚗️ Separating Mixtures
Method Use Example
Filtration Separate insoluble solids from liquids Sand from water
Crystallization Obtain solute from solution by evaporation Salt from salt water
Simple Distillation Separate liquids with very different boiling points Pure water from salt water
Fractional Distillation Separate liquids with similar boiling points Crude oil separation

Important: These are physical processes, not chemical reactions - no new substances are formed.
🧊 States of Matter
Properties Table:
 State Particle Arrangement Particle Movement Energy Level
Solid Regular pattern, tightly packed Vibrate around fixed positions Lowest
Liquid Close together, irregular Move freely, slide past each other Medium
Gas Far apart, no pattern Move rapidly and randomly Highest

State Changes:
Melting/Evaporating: Requires energy input to overcome attractive forces
Freezing/Condensing: Releases energy as attractive forces reform
These are physical changes - no chemical bonds broken
↔️ State Symbols in Equations
(s) = solid
(l) = liquid
(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous (dissolved in water)
Example: NaCl(s) + H₂O(l) → Na⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)
⚛️ Development of Atomic Models
Historical Timeline:
1. J.J. Thomson (1897)
Discovered electrons
Plum Pudding Model: Positive sphere with embedded electrons
2. Ernest Rutherford (1909)
Gold foil experiment with alpha particles
Discovered nucleus - tiny, dense, positive center
Showed atoms are mostly empty space
3. Niels Bohr (1913)
Electrons exist in specific energy levels/shells
Electrons orbit nucleus in fixed paths
4. James Chadwick (1932)
Discovered neutrons in the nucleus
🔢 Using the Periodic Table
Key Information:
Atomic Number (bottom): Number of protons = Number of electrons (in neutral atoms)
Mass Number/RAM (top): Protons + Neutrons
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number
Example: Carbon-12
Atomic number = 6 (6 protons, 6 electrons)
Mass number = 12
Neutrons = 12 - 6 = 6
☢️ Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
Calculating Average RAM:
Example: Chlorine
75% Chlorine-35, 25% Chlorine-37
Average RAM = (75 × 35 + 25 × 37) ÷ 100 = 35.5
⚡️ Electron Configuration
Shell Filling Rules:
1st shell: Maximum 2 electrons
2nd shell: Maximum 8 electrons
3rd shell: Maximum 8 electrons
4th shell: Maximum 2 electrons (up to Calcium)
Examples:
Magnesium (12 electrons): 2, 8, 2
Chlorine (17 electrons): 2, 8, 7
🏘️ Groups and Periods
Groups (Columns):
Indicate number of outer shell electrons
 Elements in same group have similar properties
Key Groups:
Group 1: Alkali metals (1 outer electron)
Group 7: Halogens (7 outer electrons)
Group 0/8: Noble gases (full outer shell)
⚛️ Periodic Trends
Group 1 (Alkali Metals):
Reactivity increases down the group
Outer electron further from nucleus = weaker attraction = easier to lose
All form +1 ions
Group 7 (Halogens):
Reactivity decreases down the group
Harder to gain electron when outer shell is further from nucleus
Boiling points increase down the group
All form -1 ions
Group 0 (Noble Gases):
Full outer shells
Very unreactive under normal conditions
Don't readily form ions
🤝 Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Occurs between: Metals and non-metals
Process:
1. Metal atoms lose electrons → positive ions (cations)
2. Non-metal atoms gain electrons → negative ions (anions)
3. Opposite charges attract
Ion Formation:
Group 1 metals: Lose 1 electron → +1 ions (Li⁺, Na⁺)
 Group 2 metals: Lose 2 electrons → +2 ions (Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺)
Group 6 non-metals: Gain 2 electrons → -2 ions (O²⁻, S²⁻)
Group 7 non-metals: Gain 1 electron → -1 ions (Cl⁻, Br⁻)
Properties of Ionic Compounds:
High melting and boiling points
Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved (ions free to move)
Form crystal lattices
Often soluble in water
Covalent Bonding
Occurs between: Non-metals only
Process: Atoms share electrons to achieve full outer shells
Bonding Patterns:
Hydrogen: 1 bond (needs 1 electron)
Carbon: 4 bonds (needs 4 electrons)
Nitrogen: 3 bonds (needs 3 electrons)
Oxygen: 2 bonds (needs 2 electrons)
Simple Molecular Structures:
Low melting/boiling points
Don't conduct electricity
Weak intermolecular forces
Giant Covalent Structures:
Diamond: Each carbon makes 4 bonds → very hard, high melting point
Graphite: Each carbon makes 3 bonds in layers → conducts electricity, layers slide
Graphene: Single layer of graphite
Fullerenes: 3D carbon structures (buckyballs, nanotubes)
Metallic Bonding
Structure: Lattice of metal ions in a "sea" of delocalized electrons
Properties:
 Good electrical and thermal conductors
Malleable and ductile
High melting points (usually)
Alloys:
Mixtures of metals
Stronger than pure metals
Different sized atoms disrupt regular structure
📐 Nanoparticles
Surface Area to Volume Ratio:
Formula: Surface Area ÷ Volume
As particle size decreases, ratio increases dramatically
Advantages: More reactive surface, less material needed
Applications:
Catalysts
Medicine delivery
Electronics
Cosmetics
🧪 Quantitative Chemistry
Conservation of Mass
Law: Mass cannot be created or destroyed in chemical reactions
Apparent mass loss: Usually due to gas products escaping
Relative Formula Mass (Mr)
Calculation: Add up all atomic masses in formula
Example: CO₂ = 12 + (2 × 16) = 44
The Mole
Definition: Amount of substance containing 6.02 × 10²³ particles
Key Equation: Moles = Mass ÷ Mr
Example: 12g of carbon = 12 ÷ 12 = 1 mole
⚖️ Stoichiometry and Calculations
Mass-to-Mass Calculations:
1. Mass → Moles: Use moles = mass ÷ Mr
2. Mole Ratio: Use balanced equation
3. Moles → Mass: Use mass = moles × Mr
Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
If 64g methane reacts:
1. Moles CH₄ = 64 ÷ 16 = 4 moles
2. Mole ratio CH₄:H₂O = 1:2, so 8 moles H₂O produced
3. Mass H₂O = 8 × 18 = 144g
Solution Concentration:
Units: g/dm³ or mol/dm³ (molarity)
Conversion: 1 dm³ = 1000 cm³ = 1 liter
💯 Yield and Atom Economy
Percentage Yield:
Formula: (Actual Yield ÷ Theoretical Yield) × 100%
Atom Economy:
Formula: (Mr of desired product ÷ Total Mr of reactants) × 100%
Example: For CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O (wanting CO₂)
Mr of CO₂ = 44
Total Mr of products = 44 + 36 = 80
Atom economy = (44 ÷ 80) × 100% = 55%
🎈 Gas Calculations
Molar Volume:
At RTP: 1 mole of any gas = 24 dm³
Volume to moles: Volume ÷ 24
 Moles to volume: Moles × 24
🔩 Reactivity Series and Metal Extraction
Reactivity Series (most to least reactive):
1. Potassium (K)
2. Sodium (Na)
3. Lithium (Li)
4. Calcium (Ca)
5. Magnesium (Mg)
6. Aluminum (Al)
7. Carbon (C)
8. Zinc (Zn)
9. Iron (Fe)
10. Hydrogen (H)
11. Copper (Cu)
12. Silver (Ag)
13. Gold (Au)
Displacement Reactions:
Rule: More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from compounds
Example: Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
Metal Extraction:
More reactive than carbon: Electrolysis needed
Less reactive than carbon: Reduction with carbon (smelting)
Example: Fe₂O₃ + 3C → 2Fe + 3CO
🧪 Acids, Bases and pH
The pH Scale:
Range: 0-14
Logarithmic: Each unit = 10× change in H⁺ concentration
Neutral: pH 7
Acidic: pH < 7 (more H⁺ ions)
 Alkaline: pH > 7 (more OH⁻ ions)
Strong vs Weak Acids:
Strong acids: Completely ionize (HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄)
Weak acids: Partially ionize (ethanoic, citric, carbonic)
Neutralization:
General equation: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
💧 Titrations
Purpose:
Find unknown concentration of acid or alkali
Method:
1. Use pipette to measure known volume of alkali
2. Add indicator (methyl orange/phenolphthalein)
3. Add acid from burette until color change
4. Record volume of acid used
Calculation Example:
Given: 25 cm³ of 0.1 M NaOH neutralized by 12.5 cm³ HCl
Equation: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O
1. Moles NaOH = 0.025 dm³ × 0.1 mol/dm³ = 0.0025 mol
2. Mole ratio 1:1, so moles HCl = 0.0025 mol
3. Concentration HCl = 0.0025 mol ÷ 0.0125 dm³ = 0.2 mol/dm³
⚡ Electrolysis
Process:
Electric current passed through molten or dissolved ionic compound
Key Terms:
Cathode: Negative electrode (reduction occurs)
Anode: Positive electrode (oxidation occurs)
 Cations: Positive ions → move to cathode
Anions: Negative ions → move to anode
OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)
Examples:
Molten Aluminum Oxide:
Cathode: Al³⁺ + 3e⁻ → Al
Anode: 2O²⁻ → O₂ + 4e⁻
Sodium Chloride Solution:
Cathode: 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → H₂ (hydrogen gas)
Anode: 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻ (chlorine gas)
💥 Energy Changes in Reactions
Bond Energy Concept:
Breaking bonds: Requires energy (endothermic)
Making bonds: Releases energy (exothermic)
Reaction Types:
Exothermic: Net energy released (temperature increases)
More energy released making bonds than used breaking them
Examples: Combustion, neutralization
Endothermic: Net energy absorbed (temperature decreases)
More energy used breaking bonds than released making them
Examples: Thermal decomposition
Energy Calculations:
Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
Bonds broken:
4 × C-H bonds: 4 × 413 = 1652 kJ/mol
2 × O=O bonds: 2 × 495 = 990 kJ/mol
Total energy required: 2642 kJ/mol
Bonds formed:
 2 × C=O bonds: 2 × 799 = 1598 kJ/mol
4 × O-H bonds: 4 × 467 = 1868 kJ/mol
Total energy released: 3466 kJ/mol
Net energy change: 3466 - 2642 = +824 kJ/mol (exothermic)
🔋 Cells and Batteries
Simple Cell:
Two different metals in contact with electrolyte
Chemical energy → Electrical energy
Battery Types:
Type Description Examples
Non-rechargeable Reactants used up, cannot be reversed Alkaline, zinc-carbon
Rechargeable Reaction can be reversed with external current Lithium-ion, lead-acid
Fuel Cells Continuous supply of fuel and oxidant Hydrogen fuel cells

Hydrogen Fuel Cells:

Fuel: Hydrogen gas
Oxidant: Oxygen from air
Product: Water (clean!)
Overall reaction: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
📊 Key Formulas Summary
Concept Formula
Moles moles = mass ÷ Mr
Concentration concentration = moles ÷ volume
Percentage Yield (actual yield ÷ theoretical yield) × 100%
Atom Economy (Mr of desired product ÷ total Mr of reactants) × 100%
Gas Volume volume = moles × 24 dm³ (at RTP)

🎯 Examination Tips
Balancing Equations:
 1. Start with most complex molecule
2. Balance metals first, then non-metals
3. Save oxygen and hydrogen for last
4. Check your work!
Calculation Steps:
1. Write balanced equation
2. Identify what you're asked to find
3. Convert given information to moles
4. Use mole ratios from equation
5. Convert back to required units
6. Check answer makes sense
Common Mistakes to Avoid:
Forgetting to balance equations
Mixing up oxidation and reduction
Using wrong molar volume (24 dm³ at RTP)
Not converting cm³ to dm³ in calculations
Confusing strong/weak with concentrated/dilute
Good luck with your GCSE Chemistry Paper 1! 🧪 ⚛️
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